Systematics

No intraspecific variation reported.

No subspecies are known. Charadrius pectoralis Vieillot, 1823, C. virginicus Lichtenstein, 1823, C. marmoratus Wagler, 1827, and Pluvialis americanus Schlegel, 1865, are junior synonyms of Pluvialis dominica (Müller, 1776).

The family Charadriidae, comprising plovers and lapwings, is well supported as one of the core groups in the shorebird (Charadriiformes) diversification. Among the Charadriidae, the genus Pluvialis is well-defined (63 Bock, W. J. (1958). A generic review of the plovers (Charadriinae, Aves). Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology 118:27–97. Close ), consisting of 4 species worldwide. These species share similarities in shape, size, and general plumage pattern (see Distinguishing Characteristics), although the Black-bellied Plover (Pluvialis squatarola), known as the “Grey Plover” in Europe, differs from the three golden-plovers, the American Golden-Plover (Pluvialis dominica), the Pacific Golden-Plover (Pluvialis fulva), and the European Golden-Plover (Pluvialis apricaria) in having a vestigial hind toe. Studies have compared and contrasted the four species in terms of downy plumages (64 Jehl, J. R., Jr. (1968). Relationships in the Charadrii (shorebirds): a taxonomic study based on color patterns of the downy young. Memoirs of the San Diego Society of Natural History 3. Close ), osteology (65 Strauch, J. G., Jr. (1978). The phylogeny of the Charadriiformes (Aves): a new estimate using the method of character compatibility analysis. Transactions of the Zoological Society of London 34:263–345. Close , 66 Mickevich, M. F., and L. R. Parenti (1980). Review of "The phylogeny of the Charadriiformes (Aves): a new estimate using the method of character compatibility analysis". Systematic Zoology 29:108–113. Close , 67 Chu, P. C. (1995). Phylogenetic reanalysis of Strauch's osteological data set for the Charadriiformes. Condor 97:174–196. Close ), allozymes (68 Baker, A. J., and J. G. Strauch Jr. (1988). Genetic variation and differentiation in shorebirds. Acta XIX Congressus Internationalis Ornithologici 1639–1645. Close , 69 Christian, P. D., L. Christidis, and R. Schodde (1992a). Biochemical systematics of the Australian dotterels and plovers (Charadriiformes: Charadriidae). Australian Journal of Ecology 40:225–233. Close , 70 Christian, P. D., L. Christidis, and R. Schodde (1992). Biochemical systematics of the Charadriiformes (shorebirds): relationships between the Charadrii, Scolopaci, and Lari. Australian Journal of Ecology 40:291–302. Close ), DNA–DNA hybridization (71 Sibley, C. G., and J. E. Ahlquist (1990). Phylogeny and Classification of Birds: A Study in Molecular Evolution. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, USA. Close ), and vocalizations (72 Miller, E. H. (1996a). Acoustic differentiation and speciation in shorebirds. In Ecology and Evolution of Acoustic Communication in Birds (D. E. Kroodsma and E. H. Miller, Editors). Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, USA. pp. 241–257. Close ). However, relationships within Charadriidae are less clear, with suggestions that Pluvialis may be distantly related to Vanellus (lapwings) and Charadrius (shore plovers) (73 Thomas, G. H., M. A. Wills, and T. Szekely (2004). A supertree approach to shorebird phylogeny. BMC Evolutionary Biology 4:1–18. Close , 74 Baker, A. J., S. L. Pereira, and T. A. Paton (2007). Phylogenetic relationships and divergence times of Charadriiformes genera: multigene evidence for the Cretaceous origin of at least 14 clades of shorebirds. Biology Letters 3:205–209. Close ), among the most species-rich genera in the family.

The American Golden-Plover and the Pacific Golden-Plover were historically considered to be conspecific and were collectively referred to as the Lesser Golden-Plover. Following initial arguments for a split (9 Connors, P. G. (1983). Taxonomy, distribution, and evolution of golden plovers (Pluvialis dominica and Pluvialis fulva). Auk 100:607–620. Close ), subsequent evidence indicated “clear and consistent differences in breeding vocalizations and nesting habitat, and strict assortative mating in areas of sympatry in western Alaska” (37 Connors, P. G., B. J. McCaffery, and J. L. Maron (1993). Speciation in golden-plovers, Pluvialis dominica and P. fulva: evidence from the breeding grounds. Auk 110:9–20. Close ). Speciation between the American Golden-Plover and the Pacific Golden-Plover likely occurred about 1.8 million years ago (75 Withrow, J. J., and K. Winker (2014). Genetics of a high-latitude cryptic speciation event: American and Pacific Golden-Plovers. Wilson Journal of Ornithology 126:429–442. Close ), associated with Pleistocene glaciation refugia. An evolutionary scenario for the origins of these taxa and the European Golden-Plover, suggests that the fledgling taxa were initially isolated during a warm interglacial within cold tundra refugia of northern Greenland–Ellesmere Island (European Golden-Plover) and highlands on either side of the Bering Strait (American Golden-Plover and Pacific Golden-Plover) (76 Larson, S. (1957). The suborder Charadrii in arctic and boreal areas during the Tertiary and Pleistocene. Acta Vertebratica 1:1–84. Close ). The three incipient species remained isolated during the last glacial maximum in tundra refugia of Europe–western Russia (European Golden-Plover), Beringia (Pacific Golden-Plover), and northeastern North America (American Golden-Plover). Subsequent colonization of western Alaska by the Pacific Golden-Plover likely came from the Chukotsk Peninsula, with the American Golden-Plover colonizing from the opposite direction (77 Portenko, L. A. (1973). Birds of the Chukchi Peninsula and Wrangel Island. Volume 2. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA. Close ). The distinct “requirements of migration and winter range” that yielded selective pressures against hybrids may have driven the speciation of these two North American species (9 Connors, P. G. (1983). Taxonomy, distribution, and evolution of golden plovers (Pluvialis dominica and Pluvialis fulva). Auk 100:607–620. Close ).

Reports of “very low levels of within-species genetic variation” in the American Golden-Plover have been linked to a population bottleneck, perhaps caused by excessive hunting (68 Baker, A. J., and J. G. Strauch Jr. (1988). Genetic variation and differentiation in shorebirds. Acta XIX Congressus Internationalis Ornithologici 1639–1645. Close ) (see Conservation and Management: Effects of Human Activity).

Genetic analysis by Withrow and Winker (75 Withrow, J. J., and K. Winker (2014). Genetics of a high-latitude cryptic speciation event: American and Pacific Golden-Plovers. Wilson Journal of Ornithology 126:429–442. Close ) indicated rare occurrence of P. dominica ⨯ P. fulva hybridization. Other reports suggesting possible P. fulva ⨯ P. apricaria hybrids (78 McCarthy, E. M. (2006). Handbook of Avian Hybrids of the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, United Kingdom. Close ) are of uncertain validity and may represent individual variation within each species rather than interbreeding.

Little is known concerning fossil history of the Charadriidae (79 Olson, S. L. (1985). The fossil record of birds. In Avian Biology (D. S. Farner, J. R. King, and K. C. Parkes, Editors). Academic Press, New York, NY, USA. pp. 79–238. Close ). Bones of “Pluvialis sp.” were found in late Pleistocene cave sediments in northeastern Mexico (80 Steadman, D. W., J. Arroyo-Cabrales, E. Johnson, and A. F. Guzman (1994). New information on the late Pleistocene birds from San Josecito Cave, Nuevo Leon, Mexico. Condor 96:577–589. Close ).