Movements and Migration

Most adults seem to be sedentary, staying year-round at their breeding colonies. There is an autumn migration south, however, especially of juveniles and immatures, and a return in the spring. Wild-hatched birds moved large distances, but dispersers selected the closest and the largest colony, probably due to conspecific attraction. The philopatry rate varied among colonies.

In western Europe, seasonal movements of the Eurasian Griffon occur between January and November, but mostly between April and September, toward the north and northeast (9 Glutz von Blotzheim, N., K. M. Bauer, and E. Bezzel (1971). Handbuch der Vögel Mitteleuropas. Band 4. Falconiformes. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close , 3 Cramp, S., and K. E. L. Simmons, Editors (1980). Handbook of the Birds of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa: The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume II: Hawks to Bustards. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close , 224 Sušić, G. (1994). Wing-marking of Eurasian Griffons Gyps fulvus in Croatia - Evaluation and Initial Results. In Raptor Conservation Today. Proceedings of the IV World Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls, Berlin, Germany, 10-17 May 1992 (B. U. Meyburg and R. D. Chancellor, Editors). World Working Group on Birds of Prey and Owls, Berlin, Germany. pp. 373–380. Close , 147 Terrasse, M. (2006). The movements of griffon vulture in France and Europe. Ornithos 13(5): 273–299. Close , 148 Krüger, T., and J. A. Krüger (2007). Einflug von Gänsegeiern Gyps fulvus in Deutschland 2006: Vorkommen, mögliche Ursachen und naturschutzfachliche Konsequenzen. Limicola 21(3): 185–217. Close ). In summer, nonbreeding birds were observed in Kazakhstan and southwestern Siberia (9 Glutz von Blotzheim, N., K. M. Bauer, and E. Bezzel (1971). Handbuch der Vögel Mitteleuropas. Band 4. Falconiformes. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ). Birds banded in Spain have been recovered in central Europe: 30 in France, one in Switzerland, four in the Netherlands, one in Poland, and one in Bulgaria (225 Salvador, A. (2016). Buitre leonado – Gyps fulvus. In Enciclopedia Virtual de los Vertebrados Españoles (A. Salvador and M. B. Morales, Editors). Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Madrid, Spain. Close ). A nestling banded in 2004 near Valdevacas de Montejo, Segovia (Spain), was found in 2006 in Kondrajec Panski (Poland; 226 Betleja, J., A. Pajak, and P. Pagórski (2006). The Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus near Ciechanów. Kulon 11: 108–109. Close ).

On Mediterranean islands, information about the movements of the Eurasian Griffon is scarce. On Crete, birds were documented for a few days on Gavdos Island to the south or Antikythera Island to northwest before they returned to Crete (S. Xirouchakis, personal communication). Despite the difficulties of moving across the sea, some Eurasian Griffon were observed on the Balearic Islands before they were eventually colonized in 2008. Between 1983 and 2005, there were five records of 1–3 birds on each of the islands Mallorca and Cabrera (188 Muntaner, J. (2012). El voltor lleonat, nova especie nidificant a les Balears. Es Busqueret 30: 8–12. Close ). It has been suggested that some Eurasian Griffon migrate between Italy and Africa (227 Bildstein, K. L. (2022). Vultures of the world. Essential Ecology and Conservation. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, USA. Close ). To support this idea, some immature birds (n = 9) and one adult were observed in Sicily in spring and autumn during the period between 1970–1985 (228 Iapichino, C., and B. Massa (1989). The Birds of Sicily. An Annotated Check-list. BOU Check-list 11. British Ornithologists’ Union, Tring, UK. Close ), and one was observed crossing the strait of Messina from Sicily to continental Italy in spring 2004 (229 Panuccio, M. (2011). Wind effects on visible raptor migration in spring at the strait of Messina, southern Italy. Journal of Raptor Research 45(1):88–92. Close ). Four Eurasian Griffon were observed at Cape Bon (Tunisia) on 18 May 1975 attempting several times to leave across the sea, but after two hours, they returned inland (230 Thiollay, J. M. (1977). Importance des populations de rapaces migrateurs au Méditerranée occidentale. Alauda 45(1):115–121. Close ). A ship-assisted Eurasian Griffon was recorded on 3 June 2016 at Freeport, Malta (231 Bonavia, E. (2020). Malta Rarities and Records Committee: 3rd Report. II–Merill 34:106–126. Close ). There is no more available information on possible migration through the Sicilian channel. Eurasian Griffon does not breed on Corsica (France), and is a rare visitor to the island, where it was recorded in 1909 and 1924 (232 Thibault, J. C., and G. Bonacorssi (1999). The Birds of Corsica: An Annotated Checklist. British Ornithologists’ Union Checklist 17. British Ornithologists’ Union and British Ornithologists’ Club, Tring, UK. Close ). A translocated Eurasian Griffon released in Sardinia was observed in Corsica in 2023 (233 De Rosa, D., I. Fozzi, J. Terraube, J. Tavares, F. Lörcher, D. Secci, M. Muzzeddu, J. F. Seguin, and F. Berlinguer (2024). Movements of translocated Griffon Vultures (Gyps fulvus) from Sardinia to Corsica call for the transboundary management of an expanding vulture population. Rivista Italiana di Ornitologia - Research in Ornithology 94(1):37–42. Close ).

Natal Philopatry and Dispersal

Wild-hatched birds from colonies in France moved distances of 54.6–3,930 km. Sex had no effect on the distance moved (234 Bosé, M., P. Le Gouar, C. Arthur, J. Lambourdière, J. P. Choisy, S. Henriquet, P. Lecuyer, M. Richard, C. Tessier, and F. Sarrazin (2007). Does sex matter in reintroduction of griffon vultures Gyps fulvus? Oryx 41(4): 503–508. Close ). Distance and colony size explained 77% of variance in dispersal, meaning that dispersers selected the closest and the largest colony to breed in, probably due to conspecific attraction, and no effect of breeding success on dispersal was observed (235 Le Gouar, P., A. Robert, J. P. Choisy, S. Henriquet, P. Lecuyer, C. Tessier, and F. Sarrazin (2008). Roles of survival and dispersal in reintroduction success of griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus). Ecological Applications 18(4): 859–872. Close ).

Eurasian Griffon hatched in Causses (France) exhibited a philopatry rate of 9.16% (n = 393) that was unrelated to the sex of the individuals in a colony that contained 130 pairs (234 Bosé, M., P. Le Gouar, C. Arthur, J. Lambourdière, J. P. Choisy, S. Henriquet, P. Lecuyer, M. Richard, C. Tessier, and F. Sarrazin (2007). Does sex matter in reintroduction of griffon vultures Gyps fulvus? Oryx 41(4): 503–508. Close ). However, in the large (359 pairs) colony at Hoces del Rio Riaza Natural Park, Segovia (Spain), 71 out of 100 fledglings from four cohorts (1996–1999) returned to their natal colony at an average age of 3.4 years (± 3.2 SD, range 1–14; 18 Fargallo, J. A., F. Martínez, K. Wakamatsu, D. Serrano, and G. Blanco (2018). Sex-Dependent Expression and Fitness Consequences of Sunlight-Derived Color Phenotypes. The American Naturalist 191(6): 726–743. Close ). At the same colony, the median natal dispersal distance for recruited individuals was 2.64 km (range = 0–190 km, n = 148). A negative correlation was observed between age and dispersal distance, with older individuals recruiting closer than younger ones ( 236 Martínez, F., M. Carrete, and G. Blanco (2024). Spatial, social and environmental factors influencing natal dispersal in the colonial griffon vulture. Current Zoology: zoae037. Close ).

Adult Fidelity to Breeding Site and Dispersal

Most adults appear to be sedentary around their breeding colonies (237 Mitropolsky, O. V., E. R. Fotteler, and G. P. Tretyakov (1987). Sokoloobraznyye Falconiformes. In Ptitsy Uzbekistana (A. K. Sagitov and R. N. Meklenburtsev, Editors), Tom 1. Izdatel’stvo ‘Fan’, Tashkent. pp. 123–247. Close ), although some are seen in central Europe, the Sahel, and Arabia. Nest fidelity was examined in the Grands Causses (France): successful nesters showed higher fidelity to their nests (76%) than unsuccessful nesters (45%; n = 92). Breeding success was higher (0.76) in pairs that changed sites after a breeding failure than in pairs that did not (0.29; 238 Sarrazin, F., C. Bagnolini, J. L. Pinna, and E. Danchin (1996). Breeding biology during establishment of a reintroduced Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus population. Ibis 138: 315–325. Close ). In Israel, nests that had higher fledging success experienced more breeding attempts and were occupied earlier (239 Freund, M., O. Bahat, and U. Motro (2017). Breeding success and its correlation with nest-site characteristics: a study of a Griffon Vulture colony in Gamla, Israel. Journal of Raptor Research 51(2): 136–144. Close ). Nests that failed to fledge young were less likely to be occupied the next breeding season (240 Freund, M., O. Bahat, and U. Motro (2017). Nest-Site Fidelity in Griffon Vultures: A Case of Win–Stay/Lose–Shift? Israel Journal of Ecology and Evolution 63(2): 39–43. Close ).

Migration toward the south, mostly by juveniles, occurs in autumn. Birds cross the Mediterranean Sea through the Straits of Gibraltar and the Bosphorus (Türkiye). After reaching Africa, birds cross the Sahara desert to the Sahel. Juveniles from Israel migrate to wintering grounds in eastern Africa or southern Arabia; some birds migrate from southwestern Arabia to Africa. Juveniles from the Caucasus migrate south to the Middle East, Pakistan, and India. Little is known about the movements of Asian populations, but migrants are observed from October to mid-April in the lowland, arid areas of India and Pakistan.

There is little information on the proportion of a population of Eurasian Griffon that migrate. In a sample of almost 80 chicks that had been equipped with GPS trackers in Spain in 2021 and 2022, half of them migrated to Africa, mainly Senegal, where they spent the winter (241 Serrano, D., E. Arrondo, M. de la Riva, and J. A. Donázar (2023). Buitres ibéricos en Senegal. Quercus 447:47–48. Close ).

The migration south in Europe, the Middle East, and Asia, takes place in autumn, mainly in October and November (242 Bernis, F. (1983). Migration of the Common Griffon Vulture in the Western Palearctic. In Vulture Biology and Management (S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson, Editors), University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA. pp. 185–196. Close ). The majority of migrants were juveniles (242 Bernis, F. (1983). Migration of the Common Griffon Vulture in the Western Palearctic. In Vulture Biology and Management (S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson, Editors), University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA. pp. 185–196. Close ); in 1992 and 1993, 90% of migrants were juveniles (170 Garrido, J. R., A. Camiña, M. Guinda, M. Egea, N. Mouati, A. Godino, and J. L. Paz de la Rocha (2005). Absence of the Eurasian Griffon (Gyps fulvus) in northern Morocco. Journal of Raptor Research 39(1): 70–74. Close ).

From western Europe, migrants cross the Iberian Peninsula, heading over the Strait of Gibraltar en route to Africa (242 Bernis, F. (1983). Migration of the Common Griffon Vulture in the Western Palearctic. In Vulture Biology and Management (S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson, Editors), University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA. pp. 185–196. Close ). After migrating through Morocco and Mauritania, migrants cross the Sahara desert to the Sahel region. Individuals banded in Spain have been recovered in Africa: 13 in Morocco, eight in Algeria, one in Tunisia, three in Mauritania, one in Mali, nine in Senegal, and two in The Gambia (243 Elósegui, J., and R. Elósegui (1977). Desplazamientos de buitres comunes pirenaicos. Munibe 29: 97–104. Close , 128 Alonso, J. A. (1984). Sur les quartiers d'hiver des vautours fauves migrateurs. Alauda 52(4): 308–309. Close , 17 Elosegi, I. (1989). Vautour fauve (Gyps fulvus), Gypaete barbu (Gypaetus barbatus), percnoptere d’Egypte (Neophron percnopterus): Synthèse bibliographique et recherches. Acta Biologica Montana, Série documents de travail 3: 1–278. Close , 225 Salvador, A. (2016). Buitre leonado – Gyps fulvus. In Enciclopedia Virtual de los Vertebrados Españoles (A. Salvador and M. B. Morales, Editors). Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Madrid, Spain. Close ). From eastern Europe, migrants enter Türkiye, crossing the Bosphorus Strait on their way to the Gulf of Alexandretta. From there, they move through Lebanon and Israel, cross the Sinai Peninsula and the Gulf of Suez, and traverse Egypt and the Sahel region (244 Moreau, R. E. (1972). The Palearctic-African Bird Migration Systems. Academic Press, London and New York, UK and USA. Close , 3 Cramp, S., and K. E. L. Simmons, Editors (1980). Handbook of the Birds of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa: The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume II: Hawks to Bustards. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ) before finally reaching Eritrea, Somalia, and Ethiopia (9 Glutz von Blotzheim, N., K. M. Bauer, and E. Bezzel (1971). Handbuch der Vögel Mitteleuropas. Band 4. Falconiformes. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ). A bird banded as a nestling in Uvac Nature Reserve (southwestern Serbia) migrated in autumn to Iraq, where it was captured and released, and later found dead at 15 months age near Severny in Stavropol Region, Russia (245 Ilyukh, M. P. (2019). Zalot belogolovogo sipa Gyps fulvus iz Serbii v okrestnosti Stavropolya. Russkiy Ornitologicheskiy Zhurnal 28, Ekspress-vypusk 1718: 129–133. Close ).

In the Middle East, juveniles from Israel migrate to wintering grounds in eastern Africa or southern Saudi Arabia (246 Braverman, I. (2023). Mother Drone, Mother Nature: the Griffon Vulture and Israel’s military. Springs: The Rachel Carson Center Review 4:2–8. Close ). Similar movements were recorded in some adults (n = 4 females, 1 male) that moved to northern and western Saudi Arabia, then back to their breeding colonies. After arriving at their winter destination, the birds traveled around for 8–66 days (247 Nathan, R., O. Spiegel, S. Fortmann-Roe, R. Harel, M. Wikelski, and W. M. Getz (2012). Using tri-axial acceleration data to identify behavioral modes of free-ranging animals: general concepts and tools illustrated for griffon vultures. Journal of Experimental Biology 215(6): 986–996. Close , 36 Spiegel, O., R. Harel, A. Centeno-Cuadros, O. Hatzofe, W. M. Getz, and R. Nathan (2015). Moving beyond Curve Fitting: Using Complementary Data to Assess Alternative Explanations for Long Movements of Three Vulture Species. The American Naturalist 185(2): E44-E54. Close ). During the autumn migration, Eurasian Griffon were recorded crossing the Bab-el-Mandeb Straits from Yemen to Yibuti (248 Welch, G., and H. Welch (1988). The autumn migration of raptors and other soaring birds across the Bab-el-Mandeb Straits. Sandgrouse 10: 26–50. Close , 112 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission & Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia & Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ).

There is little information on the migration of the Eurasian Griffon in Asia. Migrants from the Caucasus are known to move south to Iraq, Iran, and Saudi Arabia. Migrants have also been observed in desert and arid areas of Pakistan and India. Two satellite-tracked birds that wintered in the Saurashtra region (Gujarat, India) each showed different migratory routes. In spring, one migrated northward through Pakistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan to reach Kazakhstan, and in fall headed south through Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan to reach India. The other migrated in spring to southern Pakistan, southern Iran, and later headed north from northwestern Iran to the Caucasus mountain range, and in fall headed south through Iran, southern Pakistan, and India (145 Ram, M., A. Sahu, S. Tikadar, D. Gadhavi, T. A. Rather, L. Jhala, and Y. Zala (2022). Home range, movement and activity patterns of six vulture species using satellite telemetry in Saurashtra Landscape, Gujarat, India. Ecologies 3:492–507. Close ).

Pre-Breeding

The Eurasian Griffon was observed in 1964–2006 crossing the Strait of Gibraltar northward to Spain between February and July (249 Garcia, E. F. J., and K. J. Bensusan (2006). Northbound migrant raptors in June and July at the Strait of Gibraltar. British Birds 99(10): 569–575. Close ). In the spring of 1968, 120 were recorded between February and May crossing the Strait of Gibraltar to Spain, including a group of 43 on 28 April (250 Lathbury, G. W. (1973). A review of the birds of Gibraltar and its surrounding waters. Ibis 112: 25–43. Close ). From 1 May to 7 July 2015, the passage of 2,138 birds to the Iberian Peninsula from the Jebel Musa (Morocco) was recorded (251 El Khamlichi, R., M. Amezian, M. K. El Haoua, and P. Bergier (2015). La importancia del Yebel Musa, Marruecos, en la conservación de especies amenazadas de Buitres durante sus movimientos por el área del Estrecho de Gibraltar. Go-South Bulletin 12: 61–77. Close ). Between 24 February and 16 June 2017, observers recorded the movement of 6,191 Eurasian Griffon across the Strait of Gibraltar to Spain. The highest proportion of Eurasian Griffon (47.73%) was recorded between 26 April and 15 May. Age estimates based on plumage were made using a partial sample of individuals that were photographed (n = 540): 67.6% of vultures were in their second calendar year, and 32.4% were in their third calendar year or older; one individual was identified as an adult (252 Ramírez, J., F. M. Zufiaur González De Langarica, and M. Guerrero Molina (2019). Spring migration of Eurasian Griffon Vultures across the Strait of Gibraltar: number, timing and age composition. Ardeola 66(1): 113–118. Close ). During the period between 2009–2012, spring migration across of the Strait of Gibraltar extended from 5 February to 10 June, but mostly occurred between April and May (253 Onrubia, A. (2021). Eurasian griffon vulture Gyps fulvus. In Migration Strategies of Birds of Prey in Western Palearctic (M. Panuccio, U. Mellone, and N. Agostini, Editors). CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. pp. 55–67. Close ). In the 2010s, the number of Eurasian Griffon crossing the Strait of Gibraltar during spring migration has been estimated between 6,000–9,800 individuals (253 Onrubia, A. (2021). Eurasian griffon vulture Gyps fulvus. In Migration Strategies of Birds of Prey in Western Palearctic (M. Panuccio, U. Mellone, and N. Agostini, Editors). CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. pp. 55–67. Close ). Its migration north through Western Sahara (Morocco) begins in mid-February and lasts until mid-May (171 Bergier, P., M. Thévenot, and A. Qninba (2017). Oiseaux du Sahara Atlantique Marocain. Societé d'Etudes Ornithologiques de France, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France. Close ).

In the Middle East, migrating birds were recorded at Eilat and the Dead Sea (Israel) from the end of February to early May (108 Shirihai, H. (1996). The Birds of Israel: A Complete Avifauna and Bird Atlas of Israel. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ). In Egypt, migration occurred from mid-late January to mid-May (173 Goodman, S. M., and P. L. Meininger, Editors (1989). The Birds of Egypt. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). The maximum number counted during spring migration (year in parenthesis) was 141 (1982) at Suez (Egypt) (254 Shirihai, H., R. Yosef, D. Alon, G. M. Kirwan, and R. Spaar (2000). Raptor migration in Israel and the Middle East: a summary of 30 years of field research. International Birding & Research Center in Eilat, Israel. Close ); in the 1970s and 1980s, the number of Eurasian Griffon migrating through Eilat (Israel) varied between 22 (1977) and two (1987; 255 Shirihai, H., and D. A. Christie (1992). Raptor migration at Eilat. British Birds 85(4):141–186. Close ). In March 1983, two adults and one immature were observed at Elba Mountain, one adult and one immature at Wadi Aukau, one immature 104 km south of Bir Shalatein, and another individual 44 km north of Bir Shalatein (southeastern Egypt; 256 Goodman, S. M., and G. A. Mowla Atta (1987). The birds of southeastern Egypt. Le Gerfaut 77: 3–41. Close ). From 19 April to 17 May 2019, five migrants were recorded at Gebel El Zeit (Eastern Desert, Egypt; 257 Riad, S. A., M. El-Mongy, A. Abdullah, and E. S. I. Abdel-Halim (2021). Recording of the spring migration of soaring birds through Gebel El Zeit, Eastern Desert, Egypt. Egyptian Journal of Zoology 75:14–24. Close ), and between 1 March and 20 April 2022 three Eurasian Griffon were counted at Galala plateau, Egypt (258 Noby, K., H. Mossad, S. Baha El Din, N. Elbolkiny, T. Abdalla, B. Jobson, J. Williams, B. Van Gemerden, J. Weston, W. Hayward, S. Chandra, V. Arkumarev, V. Dobrev, E. Ivanova, S. Nikolov, and S. Oppel (2022). Globally important proportions of six raptor populations migrate past Galala Bird Observatory, Egypt, in spring. Sandgrouse 44:410–420. Close ).

At Bosphorus Strait (Türkiye), one Eurasian Griffon was observed on 6 April 1933, and another on 7 April 1933 (259 Kummerlöwe, H., and G. Niethammer (1935). Einige Beobachtungen über Früjahrsdurchzug am Bosphorus. Der Vogelzug 6(1): 6–10. Close ). At Belen pass (southern Türkiye), the numbers of spring migrants were 4 (2015), 13 (2016), and 1 (2017; 260 Ünal Altundağ, M. (2022). Migration dynamics of soaring birds between autumn 2015 and spring 2019 at the Belen pass and associated threats. Sandgrouse 44:143–156. Close ).

Post-Breeding

During 2008 and 2015–2019, autumn migration crossing the Strait of Gibraltar extended from 11 July to 3 December, but mostly occurred between October and November (253 Onrubia, A. (2021). Eurasian griffon vulture Gyps fulvus. In Migration Strategies of Birds of Prey in Western Palearctic (M. Panuccio, U. Mellone, and N. Agostini, Editors). CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. pp. 55–67. Close ). Over 90% of juveniles in northern Spain left their natal colonies toward the end of October; they traveled 32–54 km/d, in a southerly direction. After 2–3 weeks of traveling from their natal colony, juveniles arrived in the area of ​​the Strait of Gibraltar (261 Griesinger, J. (1996). Autumn migration of griffon vultures in Spain. In Biología y Conservación de las Rapaces Mediterráneas, 1994 (J. Muntaner and J. Mayol, Editors). Monografía 4. SEO, Madrid. pp. 401–410. Close ). In 1976–1977, the number of Eurasian Griffon crossing the Strait of Gibraltar was ca. 1,000–2,000 (242 Bernis, F. (1983). Migration of the Common Griffon Vulture in the Western Palearctic. In Vulture Biology and Management (S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson, Editors), University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA. pp. 185–196. Close ). In 1992 and 1993, about 4,000 birds crossed into Africa each year, and it was estimated that at least 30% of Spanish juveniles crossed the Strait in autumn. In 2000, 4,816 birds were recorded passing the strait (170 Garrido, J. R., A. Camiña, M. Guinda, M. Egea, N. Mouati, A. Godino, and J. L. Paz de la Rocha (2005). Absence of the Eurasian Griffon (Gyps fulvus) in northern Morocco. Journal of Raptor Research 39(1): 70–74. Close ). On 28 October 2015, in less than an hour, ca. 2,300 birds crossed from the Iberian Peninsula to the Jebel Moussa (Morocco), totaling about 3,500 by the end of the day (262 El Khamlichi, R., and J. Ramírez Román (2015). Plus de 3500 Vautours fauves migrent au Jbel Moussa, record pour l'espece au Maroc. Go-South Bulletin 12: 107–108. Close ). In the 2010s, the number of Eurasian Griffon crossing the Strait of Gibraltar during the autumn migration ranged between 8,000–12,800 (253 Onrubia, A. (2021). Eurasian griffon vulture Gyps fulvus. In Migration Strategies of Birds of Prey in Western Palearctic (M. Panuccio, U. Mellone, and N. Agostini, Editors). CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. pp. 55–67. Close ). In a sample of individuals crossing of the Strait of Gibraltar during autumn migration, 76% were juveniles, 17% were immatures, and 7% were adults (n = 2,610; 253 Onrubia, A. (2021). Eurasian griffon vulture Gyps fulvus. In Migration Strategies of Birds of Prey in Western Palearctic (M. Panuccio, U. Mellone, and N. Agostini, Editors). CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. pp. 55–67. Close ).

Individuals banded as nestlings in the Spanish region of Navarra, and provinces of Huesca, Teruel, Cádiz, Segovia, Soria, Alava, Huelva, and Burgos were recovered in Morocco on average one year later (range 0–3, n = 10; 170 Garrido, J. R., A. Camiña, M. Guinda, M. Egea, N. Mouati, A. Godino, and J. L. Paz de la Rocha (2005). Absence of the Eurasian Griffon (Gyps fulvus) in northern Morocco. Journal of Raptor Research 39(1): 70–74. Close ). An adult, captured in southern Spain and fitted with a GPS transmitter, crossed to Africa after breeding, arrived in Senegal and The Gambia, then returned to the breeding colony (263 Muñoz, A. R., A. L. Márquez, D. Chamorro, and R. Real (2016). One complete migration cycle of an adult Griffon Vulture: from southern Spain to Senegambia as revealed by high-resolution GPS tracking technology. In 3rd African Congress for Conservation Biology. El Jadida, Morocco. Close ).

In Croatia, juvenile birds left their breeding colonies by the end of September, migrated southwest through Bulgaria, Greece, Türkiye, Israel, and as far south as Chad in central Africa (224 Sušić, G. (1994). Wing-marking of Eurasian Griffons Gyps fulvus in Croatia - Evaluation and Initial Results. In Raptor Conservation Today. Proceedings of the IV World Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls, Berlin, Germany, 10-17 May 1992 (B. U. Meyburg and R. D. Chancellor, Editors). World Working Group on Birds of Prey and Owls, Berlin, Germany. pp. 373–380. Close , 139 Sušić, G. (2000). Regular Long-distance Migration of Eurasian Griffon Gyps fulvus. In Raptors at Risk. Proceedings of the V World Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls (R. D. Chancellor and B. U. Meyburg, Editors). World Working Group on Birds of Prey and Owls and Hancock House, BC, Canada. pp. 225–230. Close ). In Türkiye, migration was observed from late August to early October (210 Kirwan, G. M., K. A. Boyla, P. Castell, B. Demirci, M. Özen, H. Welch, and T. Marlow (2008). The Birds of Turkey - the Distribution, Taxonomy and Breeding of Turkish Birds. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). A juvenile fitted with a GPS transmitter in Bulgaria began migration 19 September, crossed the Bosphorus Strait into Türkiye, where it made two stops of six days each, and continued through Syria, Jordan, and Egypt, arriving on 30 October at wintering sites in Sudan and northern South Sudan. The route totaled 5,727 km over 42 d (140 Arkumarev, V., D. Dobrev, and A. Stamenov (2019). First record of Eurasian Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus from the Balkans migrating to South Sudan revealed by GPS tracking. Scopus 39(2): 27–35. Close ). At Belen pass (southern Türkiye), the numbers of fall migrant Eurasian Griffon were four (2015), 13 (2016), and one (2017; 260 Ünal Altundağ, M. (2022). Migration dynamics of soaring birds between autumn 2015 and spring 2019 at the Belen pass and associated threats. Sandgrouse 44:143–156. Close ).

In the Middle East, migrating Eurasian Griffon were observed at Harissa (Lebanon) on 15 September 1968 and from 28 September to 5 October 1969 (264 Nielsen, B. P., and S. Christensen (1970). Observations on the Autumn Migration of Raptors in the Lebanon. Ornis Scandinavica 1(2): 65–73. Close ). In Israel, migrating birds were recorded at Kafr Qasim and Eilat from mid-September through November (108 Shirihai, H. (1996). The Birds of Israel: A Complete Avifauna and Bird Atlas of Israel. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ), and in Egypt from mid-September to mid-November (173 Goodman, S. M., and P. L. Meininger, Editors (1989). The Birds of Egypt. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). A bird fitted with a transmitter at the Carmel Hills (Israel) in August 2002 was tracked later that year between Jeddah and Madinah (Saudi Arabia; 265 Shobrak, M. (2003). Vultures in Saudi Arabia. Vulture News 48:20–23. Close ). Three and 7 Eurasian Griffon were recorded crossing the Bab-el-Mandeb Straits from Yemen to Yibuti on 8–9 November 1987 (248 Welch, G., and H. Welch (1988). The autumn migration of raptors and other soaring birds across the Bab-el-Mandeb Straits. Sandgrouse 10: 26–50. Close ), and on 1 November 2007, respectively (112 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission & Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia & Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ).

The largest autumn migrations of Eurasian Griffon have been recorded (year in parentheses) at Suez (Egypt), with 3,900 (1947), 1,284 (1981), and 605 (1984), followed by Bosphorus Strait (Türkiye) with 166 (1931), and Belen Pass (Türkiye) with 125 (1965; 254 Shirihai, H., R. Yosef, D. Alon, G. M. Kirwan, and R. Spaar (2000). Raptor migration in Israel and the Middle East: a summary of 30 years of field research. International Birding & Research Center in Eilat, Israel. Close ). In the 1970s and 1980s, the number of autumn migrants recorded at Eilat (Israel) varied between 21 (1987) and 45 (1980; 255 Shirihai, H., and D. A. Christie (1992). Raptor migration at Eilat. British Birds 85(4):141–186. Close ). A mean of 44 ± 18.1 SD Eurasian Griffon were counted during autumn migration at Kfar Qassem and Northern Valleys (Israel) over a 16-year period (1982–1998). The number of autumn migrants at Eilat (Israel) decreased from 45 (1980), to 21–24 (1986–1987), and finally to 2–6 (1996–1998; 254 Shirihai, H., R. Yosef, D. Alon, G. M. Kirwan, and R. Spaar (2000). Raptor migration in Israel and the Middle East: a summary of 30 years of field research. International Birding & Research Center in Eilat, Israel. Close ). See Historical Changes to the Distribution.

Birds fitted with transmitters in the Caucasus migrated south to Iran in the autumn. One traveled to central Saudi Arabia in winter and returned to the Caucasus (144 McGrady, M. J., and A. Gavashelishvili (2006). Tracking Vultures from the Caucasus into Iran. Podoces 1(1/2): 21–26. Close ), while another traveled to southern Pakistan and India (145 Ram, M., A. Sahu, S. Tikadar, D. Gadhavi, T. A. Rather, L. Jhala, and Y. Zala (2022). Home range, movement and activity patterns of six vulture species using satellite telemetry in Saurashtra Landscape, Gujarat, India. Ecologies 3:492–507. Close ). From 2011–2018, the number counted at Batumi (Georgia) during autumn migration, between 17 August and 16 October, varied yearly from 1 to 9 birds (266 Wehrmann, J., F. de Boer, R. Benjumea, S. Cavaillès, D. Engelen, J. Jansen, B. Verhelst, and W. M. G. Vansteelant (2019). Batumi Raptor Count: autumn raptor migration count data from the Batumi bottleneck, Republic of Georgia. ZooKeys 836: 135–157. Close ).

In January 2002, 850 Eurasian Griffon were counted at Jorbeer Conservation Reserve in western Rajasthan, India (212 Chhangani, A. K., and S. M. Mohnot (2008). Demography of migratory vultures in and around Jodhpur, India. Vulture News 58: 23–34. Close ). From 21 October 2004 to 29 January 2005, 643 migrant birds were counted in the Thar Desert (India; 213 Chhangani, A. K. (2009). Present Status of Vultures in the Great Indian Thar Desert. In Faunal Ecology and Conservation of the Great Indian Desert (C. Sivaperuman, Q. H. Baqri, G. Ramaswamy and M. Naseema, Editors), Springer, Berlin and Heidelberg, Germany. pp. 65–83. Close ). In Pakistan, it migrates to the Indus plains in winter (114 Roberts, T. J. (1991). The Birds of Pakistan. Volume 1. Non-Passeriformes. Oxford University Press, Karachi, Pakistan. Close ).

During long distance flights, the Eurasian Griffon uses thermals more, flap its wings less, and flies at higher altitudes (267 Harel, R., O. Duriez, O. Spiegel, J. Fluhr, N. Horvitz, W. M. Getz, W. Bouten, F. Sarrazin, O. Hatzofe, and R. Nathan (2016). Decision-making by a soaring bird: time, energy and risk considerations at different spatio-temporal scales. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 371(1704): 20150397. Close ). The Strait of Gibraltar hinders its migration; continuous monitoring on both sides of the Strait indicates that it takes 18–25 min to cross the 15 km that separate the continents. To be successful, birds must initiate the crossing from an altitude of at least 600 m and flap their wings almost constantly (242 Bernis, F. (1983). Migration of the Common Griffon Vulture in the Western Palearctic. In Vulture Biology and Management (S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson, Editors), University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA. pp. 185–196. Close , 268 Griesinger, J. (1998). Juvenile dispersion and migration among Griffon Vultures Gyps fulvus in Spain. In Holartic Birds of Prey (R. D. Chancellor, B. U. Meyburg and J. J. Ferrero, Editors), The World Working Group on Birds of Prey and Owl, Berlin, Germany. pp. 613–621. Close ); they try to cross in large groups. During autumn migration in 1976, groups of 2–62 individuals were observed (n = 9; 242 Bernis, F. (1983). Migration of the Common Griffon Vulture in the Western Palearctic. In Vulture Biology and Management (S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson, Editors), University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA. pp. 185–196. Close ). Between 2004–2007, larger groups (mean of 59 individuals) were recorded (269 Bildstein, K. L., M. J. Bechard, C. Farmer, and L. Newcomb (2009). Narrow sea crossings present major obstacles to migrating griffon vultures Gyps fulvus. Ibis 151(2): 382–391. Close ). Average flock size of autumn and spring migrants crossing the Strait of Gibraltar between 2008–2019 was 33.1 ± 5.96 SE and 8.5 ± 0.5 SE, respectively (253 Onrubia, A. (2021). Eurasian griffon vulture Gyps fulvus. In Migration Strategies of Birds of Prey in Western Palearctic (M. Panuccio, U. Mellone, and N. Agostini, Editors). CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. pp. 55–67. Close ).

Most birds cross the Strait of Gibraltar between 1000 h and 1300 h (242 Bernis, F. (1983). Migration of the Common Griffon Vulture in the Western Palearctic. In Vulture Biology and Management (S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson, Editors), University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA. pp. 185–196. Close ) or between 1100 h and 1400 h (269 Bildstein, K. L., M. J. Bechard, C. Farmer, and L. Newcomb (2009). Narrow sea crossings present major obstacles to migrating griffon vultures Gyps fulvus. Ibis 151(2): 382–391. Close ). They do not attempt to cross from Spain to Morocco if there are strong winds from the south or east; if these conditions are present, they tend to abort the crossing and return to the mainland. During the passage, they alternate gliding with flapping (269 Bildstein, K. L., M. J. Bechard, C. Farmer, and L. Newcomb (2009). Narrow sea crossings present major obstacles to migrating griffon vultures Gyps fulvus. Ibis 151(2): 382–391. Close ). Individuals that cannot maintain constant flapping fall into the sea (270 Harvey, R. H., L. Fairman, S. K. Woolley, G. Scott, K. Bengtsson, G. Madge, B. Harrup, and E. Hirschfeld (1992). Griffon vulture drowning in sea. British Birds 85(4): 186–189. Close ). In the Strait of Gibraltar, 11 drowned immatures were found between Valdevaqueros beach and Punta Paloma (Cádiz Province, Spain) on a day of June 2005 with strong easterly winds (271 Barrios Partida, F. (2007). Nómadas del Estrecho de Gibraltar. Guía de la migración de aves, los Parques Naturales del Estrecho y Los Alcornocales, y el Peñón de Gibraltar. Grafisur, Tarifa. Close ). It has been estimated that during the crossing the Strait of Gibraltar 0.5–1% of Eurasian Griffon fell to sea (253 Onrubia, A. (2021). Eurasian griffon vulture Gyps fulvus. In Migration Strategies of Birds of Prey in Western Palearctic (M. Panuccio, U. Mellone, and N. Agostini, Editors). CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. pp. 55–67. Close ).

A satellite-tracked Eurasian Griffon made four major stopovers lasting 5–12 d each during its spring migration from India to the Caucasus (Russia; 145 Ram, M., A. Sahu, S. Tikadar, D. Gadhavi, T. A. Rather, L. Jhala, and Y. Zala (2022). Home range, movement and activity patterns of six vulture species using satellite telemetry in Saurashtra Landscape, Gujarat, India. Ecologies 3:492–507. Close ).

Information needed.