Movements and Migration

Natal Philopatry and Dispersal

No information.

Adult Fidelity to Breeding Site and Dispersal

Studies of marked birds from 1988–2003 on the Seward Peninsula showed males much more site-faithful than females (134 Johnson, O. W., P. M. Johnson, P. L. Bruner, A. E. Bruner, R. J. Kienholz, and P. A. Brusseau (1997c). Male-biased breeding ground fidelity and longevity in American Golden-Plovers. Wilson Bulletin 109:348–351. Close , 135 Johnson, O. W., P. L. Bruner, A. E. Bruner, P. M. Johnson, R. J. Kienholz, and P. A. Brusseau (2001e). Features of breeding biology in Pacific and American Golden-Plovers nesting on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Wader Study Group Bulletin 95:59–65. Close , 118 Johnson, O. W., P. L. Bruner, A. E. Bruner, and P. M. Johnson (2007c). American Golden-Plovers on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska: a new longevity record for the species and other breeding ground observations. Wader Study Group Bulletin 114:56–59. Close ). Most males (13 of 19, 68%) were observed in one or more post-banding seasons, fewer females (3 of 15, 20%). All males reoccupied the same territories. One female went unseen for 3 post-banding seasons, then was found in season 4 paired with a marked male (a different mate than she had when captured) at a site approximately 1,200 m from the nest where she was originally banded. In post-banding season 5, this female was observed again (the last sighting), but only briefly during a skirmish with her season 4 mate (already paired with another female), who chased her away. The other two American Golden-Plover females were found in their first post-banding seasons, unseen thereafter. Both had different mates and were nesting approximately 550 m and 1,600 m, respectively, from their previous-season nests. From these inter-year distances, it is apparent that females may return to the same breeding locale, but are not site-specific enough to be detected. Similar findings were reported by Klima (136 Klima, J. (2002). Demography and Behavior of the American Golden-Plovers (Pluvialais dominica) at Churchill, Manitoba, 2002. Churchill Northern Studies Centre, Churchill, MB, Canada. Close ), who located a marked female nesting at “slightly over 1 km” from her study area. Distances up to 5 km are known in the Pacific Golden-Plover (Pluvialis fulva) (see 137 Johnson, O. W., P. G. Connors, and P. Pyle (2018). Pacific Golden-Plover (Pluvialis fulva), version 3.0. In The Birds of North America (P. G. Rodewald, Editor). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, New York, USA. Close ). The range of inter-year distances between nests of marked males varies widely: 0 m (reuse of cup) to 500 m (n = 12) on the Seward Peninsula (135 Johnson, O. W., P. L. Bruner, A. E. Bruner, P. M. Johnson, R. J. Kienholz, and P. A. Brusseau (2001e). Features of breeding biology in Pacific and American Golden-Plovers nesting on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Wader Study Group Bulletin 95:59–65. Close , 118 Johnson, O. W., P. L. Bruner, A. E. Bruner, and P. M. Johnson (2007c). American Golden-Plovers on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska: a new longevity record for the species and other breeding ground observations. Wader Study Group Bulletin 114:56–59. Close ), and 46–289 m (n = 3) in North Slope, Alaska (138 Moiteret, C. S., T. R. Martin, and P. D. Martin (1996). Predevelopment surveys of nesting birds at two sites in the Kuparuk Oilfield, Alaska, 1988–1992. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Northern Alaska Ecological Services, Fairbanks, AK, USA. Close ).

Other fidelity records over consecutive post-banding seasons include: 4 of 7 males and 0 of 2 females returned at a site on North Slope, Alaska, 3 seasons (138 Moiteret, C. S., T. R. Martin, and P. D. Martin (1996). Predevelopment surveys of nesting birds at two sites in the Kuparuk Oilfield, Alaska, 1988–1992. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Northern Alaska Ecological Services, Fairbanks, AK, USA. Close ); male return rate 72%, female 41%, 3 seasons, Churchill (see 139 Klima, J., and O. W. Johnson (2005). Return rates of male and female monogamous shorebirds to their breeding grounds. Wader Study Group Bulletin 106:42–46. Close ). The overall conclusion about breeding ground fidelity is that unlike comparable species of monogamous shorebirds, there is significant sex bias toward the male American Golden-Plover returning to specific nesting territories inter year. The same sex bias for site fidelity is true for the male Pacific Golden-Plover and the male Black-bellied Plover (Pluvialis squatarola)(139 Klima, J., and O. W. Johnson (2005). Return rates of male and female monogamous shorebirds to their breeding grounds. Wader Study Group Bulletin 106:42–46. Close ).

Fidelity to Overwintering Home Range

High return rates are typical in the Pacific Golden-Plover (see 137 Johnson, O. W., P. G. Connors, and P. Pyle (2018). Pacific Golden-Plover (Pluvialis fulva), version 3.0. In The Birds of North America (P. G. Rodewald, Editor). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, New York, USA. Close ). Fidelity is probably similar in the American Golden-Plover, but no information is available.

The American Golden-Plover makes lengthy migrations between tundra breeding grounds in North America and grasslands and coastal wetlands on overwintering grounds in South America. Migrations include nonstop over-water flights between the two continents, and refueling stopovers in the midwestern United States.

There is a lengthy period of fall migration since movements vary with breeding success and juveniles depart considerably later than adults. During this time, the species is widely dispersed as first arrivals on overwintering grounds occur before the last departures from tundra breeding grounds. Clay et al. (106 Clay, R. P., A. J. Lesterhuis, and O. Johnson (2010). Conservation plan for the American Golden-Plover (Pluvialis dominica). Version 1.1. Manomet Center Conservation Science, Manomet, MA, USA. Close ) provided an extensive list of Important Bird Areas (global and regional) plus other important sites in North and South America where large numbers of plovers have been reported during spring and fall migrations.

The American Golden-Plover is well known for an elliptical migratory pattern: offshore nonstop trans-Atlantic route in fall, mid-continental flyway in spring (31 Byrkjedal, I., and D. B. A. Thompson (1998). Tundra Plovers: The Eurasian, Pacific and American Golden Plovers and Grey Plover. T & AD Poyser Ltd, London, United Kingdom. Close ). Recent tracking using geolocators (J. F. Lamarre, personal communication) substantiated this pattern, and also demonstrated trans-Gulf of Mexico and trans-Caribbean pathways, and supports much of what follows concerning both fall and spring migrations.

Southbound Migration

Adults begin leaving breeding grounds late in June to mid-July (probably failed breeders); most depart in August. Peak migration of adults in the Atlantic Provinces of Canada is 26 July–30 August (140 Morrison, R. I. G., C. Downes, and B. Collins (1994b). Population trends of shorebirds on fall migration in eastern Canada 1974–1991. Wilson Bulletin 106:431–447. Close ). Juveniles linger in northerly regions until late August to early October. Reports of very late November to December transients in eastern North America (especially Florida and coastal states from the Carolinas to Texas) are probably all juveniles (see 110 Paulson, D. R., and D. S. Lee (1992). Wintering of Lesser Golden-Plovers in eastern North America. Journal of Field Ornithology 63:121–128. Close for a summary of records).

Fall migration includes one or more stopovers (e.g., Foxe Peninsula [J. F. Lamarre, personal communication], in central Canada, southeastern Canada, and the New England coast) before the trans-Atlantic flight to South America (141 Williams, T. C., and J. M. Williams (1990). The orientation of transoceanic migrants. In Bird Migration: Physiology and Ecophysiology (E. Gwinner, Editor). Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany. pp. 7–21. Close , 142 Wilson, N. C., and R. D. McRae (1993). Seasonal and geographical distribution of birds for selected sites in Ontario's Hudson Bay lowland. Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Toronto, ON, Canada. Close ). Storms may disrupt the Atlantic passage, forcing birds to travel along the coastline or move inland. The southeastern coast of Beaufort Sea may be an important flyway for the American Golden-Plover departing Alaska breeding grounds (143 Gudmundsson, G. A., T. Alerstam, M. Green, and A. Hedenström (2002). Radar observations of Arctic bird migration at the Northwest Passage, Canada. Arctic 55:21–43. Close ). The latter source also documents eastward and southward migratory movements of shorebird flocks (many were probably American Golden-Plover) at numerous sites in the Northwest Passage region. Aside from the heavily used trans-Atlantic route, some birds travel southward on inland paths (e.g., the Missouri, Mississippi, and Ohio river valleys, and the eastern U.S. and Atlantic seaboard), and make stops along the way. These routes apparently lead to South America via trans-Gulf/Caribbean flights. Small numbers possibly follow the Pacific Coast along a flyway presumably extending to South America; these may be from westernmost breeding grounds (see 7 Paulson, D. R. (1993). Shorebirds of the Pacific Northwest. University of Washington Press, Seattle, Washington, USA. Close ). Some travel through the intermountain and mountainous West, or fly eastward across the Rocky Mountains (J. F. Lamarre, personal communication) then south via the mid-continent. Records along the Pacific Coast are ambiguous since the Pacific Golden-Plover occurs there, and misidentification is possible.

Fall passage through Trinidad, and Tobago, and northern South America, is not well understood. Reported as uncommon to fairly common transient, some birds apparently linger for several weeks before continuing their southward migration; about 9,000 birds were seen in coastal Guyana in early September 1991 (C. Faanes, personal communication). Many birds probably travel well inland before alighting, and some may fly directly to central Brazil. Routes apparently follow north–south river valleys where floodplains (water levels are low at this season), pastures, and similar habitats provide necessary resources. Based on dates of fall sightings, juveniles are more likely than adults to island-hop or stop short of the South American continent, and passage of juveniles appears to be farther west (consistent with inland pathways through North America) than that of adults. The extensive wetlands in the Pantanal region at the headwaters of the Paraguay River in Brazil are likely an important stopover for both adults and juveniles (144 Antas, P. T. Z. (1983). Migration of Nearctic shorebirds (Charadriidae and Scolopacidae) in Brazil-flyways and their different seasonal use. Wader Study Group Bulletin 39:52–56. Close , 116 Stotz, D. F., R. O. Bierregaard, M. Cohn-Haft, P. Peterman, and J. Smith (1992). The status of North American migrants in central Amazonian Brazil. Condor 94: 608–621. Close ). The rate of passage through interior South America is unknown. Birds arrive on overwintering grounds from late August to December.

Northbound Migration

Spring migration begins in late January with the major exodus in February, stragglers continue to leave until the end of April (48 Dabbene, R. (1920). Notas sobre los chorlos de Norte América que invernan en la República Argentina. Hornero 2:99–128. Close , 145 Wetmore, A. (1927). Our migrant shorebirds in southern South America. U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin 26. Close , 146 Olrog, C. C. (1959). Las Aves Argentinas. Instituto Miguel Lillo, Universidad Nacinoal de Tucumán, Tucumán, Argentina. Close , 147 Myers, J. P., and L. P. Myers (1979). Shorebirds of coastal Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. Ibis 121:186–200. Close , 52 Hayes, F. E., S. M. Goodman, J. A. Fox, T. G. Tamayo, and N. E. López (1990). North American bird migrants in Paraguay. Condor 92:947–960. Close , 53 Sick, H. (1993). Birds in Brazil: A Natural History. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA. Close , 148 Isacch, J. P., and M. M. Martínez (2003b). Temporal variation in abundance and the population status of non-breeding Nearctic and Patagonian shorebirds in the flooding pampa grasslands of Argentina. Journal of Field Ornithology 74:233–242. Close , 149 Scherer, A. L., and M. V. Petry (2012). Seasonal variation in shorebird abundance in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil. Wilson Journal of Ornithology 124:40–50. Close ). Northward movements from South America are along two very different routes, one continental, the other oceanic. The first route is an inland passage during a period that coincides with the flooding cycle in Brazil. Flooding makes river-valley habitats used in fall unavailable, thus Antas (144 Antas, P. T. Z. (1983). Migration of Nearctic shorebirds (Charadriidae and Scolopacidae) in Brazil-flyways and their different seasonal use. Wader Study Group Bulletin 39:52–56. Close ) posited a spring route west of the fall route, passing to the upper reaches of Amazonian rivers in Bolivia, Peru, and Colombia (this path now confirmed by J. F. Lamarre, personal communication). Birds following the inland route depart northwestern South America, pre-departure staging possibly occurs on high Andean plateaus (“large numbers can be seen around 4,000 m on altiplanos of northwestern Argentina, Bolivia, and Peru in March and April”; 150 Fjeldså, J., and N. Krabbe (1990). Birds of the High Andes. Apollo Books, Svendborg, Denmark. Close ), and track along coasts of Central America and Mexico or fly directly across the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico en route to U.S. Gulf Coast. The second route (trans-Pacific, see Lamar et al. 2021 [151 Lamarre, J-F., G. Gauthier, R. B. Lanctot, S. T. Saalfeld, O. P. Love, E. Reed, O. W. Johnson, J. Liebezeit, R. McGuire, M. Russell, E. Nol, L. Koloski, F. Sanders, L. McKinnon, P. A. Smith, S. A. Flemming, N. Lecomte, M-A. Giroux, S. Bauer, T. Emmenegger, J. Bêty (2021). Timing of Breeding Site Availability Across the North-American Arctic Partly Determines Spring Migration Schedule in a Long-Distance Neotropical Migrant. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 9. Close ]) extends westward from the overwintering grounds, crosses the Andes, then arcs northward well offshore, parallels nearly the entire continent of South America, and finally reaches landfall in northern Central America/southern Mexico, where the path intersects with birds following the inland route. Howell and Webb (152 Howell, S. N. G., and S. Webb (1995). A Guide to the Birds of Mexico and Northern Central America. Oxford University Press, New York, NY, USA. Close ) report the American Golden-Plover as widely distributed spring transients in Mexico, from interior to Atlantic slope ("major concentrations in central Vera Cruz") and the Pacific slope ("from Colima south"). How these observations relate to the two routes just described is unknown. Perhaps plovers on the Pacific slope are mostly trans-Pacific (second route above) migrants. Notably, the American Golden-Ploverwas not found during 2004–2006 coastal shorebird surveys of northern Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico (153 Correa-Sandoval, J., and A. J. Contreras-Balderas (2008). Distribution and abundance of shorebirds in the coastal wetlands of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. Wader Study Group Bulletin 115:148–156. Close ). Records are insufficient to clarify spring passage through states along the U.S. Pacific Coast (154 Mlodinow, S. (1993). Finding the Pacific Golden-Plover (Pluvialis fulva) in North America. Birding 25:322–329. Close , 7 Paulson, D. R. (1993). Shorebirds of the Pacific Northwest. University of Washington Press, Seattle, Washington, USA. Close , 155 Small, A. (1994). California Birds: Their Status and Distribution. Ibis Publishing Company, Vista, CA, USA. Close ).

Migration through the U.S. and southern Canada is relatively leisurely and involves stopovers. The following timing and other details are compiled from numerous sources (e.g., 156 Roberts, T. S. (1936). The Birds of Minnesota, 2nd edition. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA. Close , 157 Lowery, G. H., Jr. (1974). Louisiana Birds, revised third edition. Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge, Louisiaina, USA. Close , 21 Oberholser, H. C. (1974). The Bird Life of Texas. University of Texas Press, Austin, TX, USA. Close , 158 Dinsmore, J. J., T. A. Kent, D. Koening, P. C. Petersen, and D. Rossa (1984). Iowa Birds. Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA, USA. Close , 159 Mumford, R. E., and C. E. Keller (1984). The Birds of Indiana. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Indiana, USA. Close , 92 Godfrey, W. E. (1986). The Birds of Canada. Revised Edition. National Museums of Canada, Ottawa, Canada. Close , 160 Tufts, R. W. (1986). Birds of Nova Scotia. 3rd edition. Nimbus Publishing, Ltd. and Nova Scotia Museum, Halifax, NS, Canada. Close , 161 Janssen, R. B. (1987). Birds in Minnesota. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN, USA. Close , 162 Bohlen, H. D. (1989). The Birds of Illinois. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, USA. Close , 163 Peterjohn, B. G. (1989). The Birds of Ohio. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, USA. Close , 164 Thompson, M. C., and C. Ely (1989). Birds in Kansas, Volume I. University of Kansas Museum of Natural History Public Education Series 11. Close , 165 South Dakota Ornithologists' Union (1991). The Birds of South Dakota, 2nd edition. South Dakota Ornithologists' Union, Aberdeen, South Dakota, USA. Close , 166 Stevenson, H. M., and B. H. Anderson (1994). The Birdlife of Florida. University Press of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA. Close , 167 Alexander, S. A., and C. Gratto-Trevor (1997). Shorebird migration and staging at a large prairie lake and wetland complex: The Quill Lakes, Saskatchewan. Canadian Wildlife Service Occasional Papers no. 97. Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Close , 168 Montana Bird Distribution Committee (2012). P. D. Skaar's Montana Bird Distribution. 7th edition. Montana Audubon, Helena, MT, USA. Close , 169 Marks, J. S., P. Hendricks, and D. Casey (2016). Birds of Montana. Buteo Books, Arrington, Virginia, USA. Close ). First arrivals in Texas, Louisiana, and Florida are in late February to early March, movements continue until May. Some birds alight on or near the coastline, others may continue farther inland. Variable arrival (no doubt influenced by weather) is early to late March, with the major influx during April over the broad region of the Missouri, Mississippi, and Ohio river valleys, primarily from Kansas to Kentucky northward to the Dakotas and southern Minnesota. Also a few birds appear along the Atlantic Coast of the U.S. and Canada to at least Nova Scotia, and in the far west from Nevada and Utah to northern Idaho and western Montana (some of the latter might be from the Pacific flyway and could include the Pacific Golden-Plover; see the eBird range map in 137 Johnson, O. W., P. G. Connors, and P. Pyle (2018). Pacific Golden-Plover (Pluvialis fulva), version 3.0. In The Birds of North America (P. G. Rodewald, Editor). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, New York, USA. Close ). Passage through the upper midwestern U.S. and southern Canada usually peaks in early to mid May.

Timing of arrival on breeding grounds is influenced by latitude and snowmelt (170 Smith, P. A., H. G. Gilchrist, M. R. Forbes, J.-L. Martin, and K. Allard (2010b). Inter-annual variation in the breeding chronology of arctic shorebirds: Effects of weather, snow melt and predators. Journal of Avian Biology 41:292–304. Close , 151 Lamarre, J-F., G. Gauthier, R. B. Lanctot, S. T. Saalfeld, O. P. Love, E. Reed, O. W. Johnson, J. Liebezeit, R. McGuire, M. Russell, E. Nol, L. Koloski, F. Sanders, L. McKinnon, P. A. Smith, S. A. Flemming, N. Lecomte, M-A. Giroux, S. Bauer, T. Emmenegger, J. Bêty (2021). Timing of Breeding Site Availability Across the North-American Arctic Partly Determines Spring Migration Schedule in a Long-Distance Neotropical Migrant. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 9. Close ), mostly mid-May to early June (59 Irving, L. (1960). Birds of Anaktuvuk Pass Kobuk and Old Crow: A study in Arctic adaptation. U.S. National Museum Bulletin 217. Close , 171 Drury, W. H., Jr. (1961). The breeding biology of shorebirds on Bylot Island, Northwest Territories, Canada. Auk 78:176–219. Close , 46 Parmelee, D. F., H. A. Stephens, and R. H. Schmidt (1967). The birds of Southeastern Victoria Island and adjacent small islands. National Museum of Canada Bulletin 222. Close , 119 Jehl, J. R., Jr., and B. A. Smith (1970). Birds of the Churchill region, Manitoba. Special Publication no. 1. Manitoba Museum of Man and Nature, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. Close , 120 Martin, P. D., and C. S. Moiteret (1981). Bird populations and habitat use, Canning River delta, Alaska. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Fairbanks, Alaska, USA. Close , 172 Kessel, B. (1989). Birds of the Seward Peninsula, Alaska: Their Biogeography, Seasonality and Natural History. University of Alaska Press, Fairbanks, AK, USA. Close , 37 Connors, P. G., B. J. McCaffery, and J. L. Maron (1993). Speciation in golden-plovers, Pluvialis dominica and P. fulva: evidence from the breeding grounds. Auk 110:9–20. Close , 173 Johnston, V. H., and S. T. Pepper (2009). The birds of Prince Charles Island and Air Force Island, Foxe Basin, Nunavut. Occasional Paper No. 117, Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Close , 170 Smith, P. A., H. G. Gilchrist, M. R. Forbes, J.-L. Martin, and K. Allard (2010b). Inter-annual variation in the breeding chronology of arctic shorebirds: Effects of weather, snow melt and predators. Journal of Avian Biology 41:292–304. Close ), at the latest around the third week of June in the extreme northern part of the range on Devon Island, Nunavut (174 Hussell, D. J. T., and G. L. Holroyd (1974). Birds of the Truelove Lowland and adjacent areas of Northeastern Devon Island, N.W.T. Canadian Field-Naturalist 88:197–212. Close ). Passage along the coast of the Beaufort Sea may be a major spring pathway for birds breeding in Alaska (175 Richardson, W. J., and S. R. Johnson (1981). Waterbird migration near the Yukon and Alaskan coast of the Beaufort Sea: 1. Timing, routes, and numbers in spring. Arctic 34:108–121. Close ).

Remaining on overwintering range during the boreal summer is apparently unusual for the American Golden-Plover, but a few birds have been reported at various sites in South America including Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay (176 Blanco, D. E., and P. Canevari (1998). Identifying wetlands of critical value to shorebirds in South America: an updated panorama about distribution and numbers. Canadian Wildlife Service Report, Latin American Program. Wetlands International, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Close ). The full extent of this behavior is uncertain. Wetmore (177 Wetmore, A. (1926). Observations on the birds of Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Chile. United States National Museum Bulletin 133:1–448. Close ) noted scattered individuals during the Argentine winter and considered them either "wounded, sterile, or otherwise diseased" or lacking in "physiological incentive" for migration. Studies of the Pacific Golden-Plover (in which overwintering is fairly common) support the last alternative and suggest that stragglers in South America represent some fraction of first-year birds that are not yet sexually mature.

As of September 2017, there were 42 recoveries/encounters of banded American Golden-Plovers in files of the U.S. Geological Survey, Bird Banding Laboratory (BBL). Of these, five were over relatively long distances (3,827–8,561 km) consistent with migratory routes described above. Locations and dates were as follows:

• Banded in southern Quebec (Mauricie Region), September 1948, and recovered in Guyana (near Georgetown), January 1949.
• Banded in northern Illinois (LaSalle County), October 1955, and recovered in Guadaloupe, September 1958.
• Banded on Victoria Island, Nunavut, July 1960, and recovered in northeastern Texas (near Pittsburg), March 1962.
• Banded in Utqiagvik, Alaska, June 2009, and recovered in Aruba, October 2009.
• Banded in Utqiagvik, Alaska, July 2011, and recovered in Guadaloupe, September 2013.

For additional discussion of spring and fall migration, including routes in both North and South America and counts of birds stopping over in various regions, see Clay et al. (106 Clay, R. P., A. J. Lesterhuis, and O. Johnson (2010). Conservation plan for the American Golden-Plover (Pluvialis dominica). Version 1.1. Manomet Center Conservation Science, Manomet, MA, USA. Close ). Efforts to define breeding and overwintering areas using stable isotopes from feather samples were unsuccessful (178 Rocque, D.A., M. Ben-David, R. P. Barry, and K. Winker (2006). Assigning birds to wintering and breeding grounds using stable isotopes: lessons from two feather generations among three intercontinental migrants. Journal of Ornithology 147:395–404. Close ).

Very little is known about the behavior of the migrant American Golden-Plover in remote areas such as interior South America and much of Alaska. Movements in North America appear to involve flocks feeding opportunistically, but migratory aggregations also occur in traditional stopover areas (161 Janssen, R. B. (1987). Birds in Minnesota. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN, USA. Close , 179 Jorgensen, J. G. (2004). An overview of shorebird migration in the eastern Rainwater Basin, Nebraska: Occasional Paper No. 8, Nebraska Ornithogists' Union. Close , 180 Jorgensen, J. G. (2008b). Update to an overiew of shorebird migration in the eastern Rainwater Basin, Nebraska. Published by the author, Lincoln, NE, USA. Close , 106 Clay, R. P., A. J. Lesterhuis, and O. Johnson (2010). Conservation plan for the American Golden-Plover (Pluvialis dominica). Version 1.1. Manomet Center Conservation Science, Manomet, MA, USA. Close , 62 Stodola, K. W., B. J. O'Neal, M. G. Alessi, J. L. Deppe, T. R. Dallas, T. A. Beveroth, T. J. Benson, and M. P. Ward (2014). Stopover ecology of American Golden-Plovers (Pluvialis dominica) in Midwestern agricultural fields. Condor 116:162–172. Close ). The largest known spring aggregations have been documented in northwestern Indiana (Benton and White counties) and adjacent northeastern Illinois (159 Mumford, R. E., and C. E. Keller (1984). The Birds of Indiana. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Indiana, USA. Close , 162 Bohlen, H. D. (1989). The Birds of Illinois. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, USA. Close ). In Benton County, yearly surveys around 21 April from 1980–1986 ranged from about 4,000 to over 25,000 birds (181 Erickson, H. T. (1992). Spring migration of Lesser Golden-Plovers in Benton County, Indiana. Indiana Audubon Quarterly 70:87–92. Close ). In Benton and White counties, counts throughout the spring of 1998 indicated at least 42,000 plovers (possibly as many as 84,000) had stopped over amidst the region's agricultural fields (182 Braile, T. M. (1999). Migration studies of shorebirds in west-central Indiana. M.S. thesis, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN, USA. Close ). This area provides a spring migratory stopover for a period of about 45 d (individuals average 24 d). Extensive molting into alternate plumage occurs during this period (also see 15 Jukema, J., J. B. Dunning Jr., P. Vlas, L. Brierley, and P. Brooks (2015). Morphological variation in spring migrant and wintering American Golden-Plovers Pluvialis dominica. Wader Study 122:128–134. Close ), and birds continuing northward migration typically depart during daylight hours (62 Stodola, K. W., B. J. O'Neal, M. G. Alessi, J. L. Deppe, T. R. Dallas, T. A. Beveroth, T. J. Benson, and M. P. Ward (2014). Stopover ecology of American Golden-Plovers (Pluvialis dominica) in Midwestern agricultural fields. Condor 116:162–172. Close ).

Old reports (183 Cooke, W. W. (1910). Distribution and migration of North American shorebirds. U.S. Department of Agriculture Biological Survey Bulletin 35. Close ) of American Golden-Plover fall staging grounds in Labrador and Nova Scotia were widely accepted. However, there is no hard evidence from Labrador (184 Todd, W. E. C. (1963). Birds of the Labrador Peninsula and Adjacent Areas: A Distributional List. University of Toronto Press, Toronto, ON, Canada. Close ), and no large concentrations have appeared in Nova Scotia for over a century (92 Godfrey, W. E. (1986). The Birds of Canada. Revised Edition. National Museums of Canada, Ottawa, Canada. Close ). Either past observations were inaccurate or migratory routes have changed (also see 31 Byrkjedal, I., and D. B. A. Thompson (1998). Tundra Plovers: The Eurasian, Pacific and American Golden Plovers and Grey Plover. T & AD Poyser Ltd, London, United Kingdom. Close ). Data from geolocator-equipped plovers suggests that the Foxe Peninsula on Baffin Island is now an important fall staging site (J. F. Lamarre, personal communication). Details concerning pre-migratory behavior of the species in fall remain unreported.

From extensive radar studies in the North American Arctic, altitudes of migrating shorebird flocks (probably including the American Golden-Plover) were commonly around 1 km, often 2–4 km, occasionally > 5 km (185 Alerstam, T., and G. A. Gudmundsson (1999a). Bird orientation at high latitudes: flight routes between Siberia and North America across the Arctic Ocean. Procedings of the Royal Society of London B 226:2499–2505. Close , 186 Alerstam, T., and G. A. Gudmundsson (1999b). Migration patterns of tundra birds: tracking radar observations along the Northeast passage. Arctic 52:346–371. Close , 143 Gudmundsson, G. A., T. Alerstam, M. Green, and A. Hedenström (2002). Radar observations of Arctic bird migration at the Northwest Passage, Canada. Arctic 55:21–43. Close , 187 Alerstam, T., J. Bäckman, G. A. Gudmundsson, A. Hedenström, S. S. Henningsson, H. Karlsson, M. Rosén, and R. Strandberg (2007). A polar system of intercontinental bird migration. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 274(1625):2523–2530. Close , 188 Hedenström, A., T. Alerstam, J. Bäckman, G. A. Gudmundsson, S. Henningsson, H. Karlsson, M. Rosén, and R. Strandberg (2009). Radar observations of arctic bird migration in the Beringia region. Arctic 62:25–37. Close ). The highest measured altitude of flocks (likely the American Golden-Plover) were 6 km over the Caribbean (141 Williams, T. C., and J. M. Williams (1990). The orientation of transoceanic migrants. In Bird Migration: Physiology and Ecophysiology (E. Gwinner, Editor). Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany. pp. 7–21. Close ), and 6.65 km at Nova Scotia (189 Richardson, W. J. (1979). Southeastward shorebird migration over Nova Scotia and New Brunswick in autumn: A radar study. Canadian Journal of Zoology 57:107–125. Close ). Transoceanic navigation may be relatively simple: constant compass heading combined with effects of prevailing winds (141 Williams, T. C., and J. M. Williams (1990). The orientation of transoceanic migrants. In Bird Migration: Physiology and Ecophysiology (E. Gwinner, Editor). Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany. pp. 7–21. Close ). The only known visual estimates of altitudes for the American Golden-Plover migrating during daylight hours were flocks at about 50 m in east-central Alaska (190 Cooper, B. A., and R. J. Ritchie (1995). The altitude of bird migration in east-central Alaska: A radar and visual study. Journal of Field Ornithology 66:590–608. Close ).

No information concerning proximate stimuli. No studies of energetics associated with migration and breeding. These elements are probably similar to those of other long-distance migrant shorebirds (e.g., 191 O'Reilly, K. M., and J. C. Wingfield (1995). Spring and autumn migration in Arctic shorebirds: same distance, different strategies. American Zoologist 35:222–233. Close , 192 Klaassen, M. (1996). Metabolic constraints on long-distance migration in birds. Journal of Experimental Biology 199:57–64. Close , 193 Piersma, T., and R. E. Gill Jr. (1998). Guts don't fly: Small digestive organs in obese Bar-tailed Godwits. Auk 115:196–203. Close , 194 Battley, P. F., T. Piersma, M. W. Dietz, S. Tang, A. Dekinga, and K. Hulsman (2000). Empirical evidence for differential organ reductions during trans-oceanic bird flight. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 267(1439):191–195. Close , 195 Battley, P. F., A. Dekinga, M. W. Dietz, T. Piersma, S. X. Tang, and K. Hulsman (2001). Basal metabolic rate declines during long-distance migratory flight in great knots. Condor 103:838–845. Close , 196 Piersma, T., and J. Jukema (2002). Contrast in adaptive mass gains: Eurasian golden plovers store fat before midwinter and protein before prebreeding flight. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B 269(1496):1101–1105. Close , 197 Tulp, I., H. Schekkerman, R. H. G. Klaassen, B. J. Ens, and G. H. Visser (2009b). Body condition of shorebirds upon arrival at their Siberian breeding grounds. Polar Biology 32:481–491. Close , 198 Conklin, J. R., N. R. Senner, P. F. Battley, and T. Piersma (2017). Extreme migration and the individual quality spectrum. Journal of Avian Biology 48:19–36. Close ), although having a cycle with lengthy continental passages that permit opportunistic and stopover feeding (especially in spring) differs significantly from extreme transoceanic flights like those of the Pacific Golden-Plover (199 Johnson, O. W., R. R. Porter, L. Fielding, M. F. Weber, R. S. Gold, R. H. Goodwill, P. M. Johnson, A. E. Bruner, P. A. Brusseau, N. H. Brusseau, K. Hurwitz, and J. W. Fox (2015). Tracking Pacific Golden-Plovers Pluvialis fulva: Transoceanic migrations between non-breeding grounds in Kwajalein, Japan and Hawaii and breeding grounds in Alaska and Chukotka. Wader Study 122:4–11. Close ). Notably, many of the American Golden-Plovers sampled during a spring stopover in the Upper Midwest were relatively fat: 126–180 g (15 Jukema, J., J. B. Dunning Jr., P. Vlas, L. Brierley, and P. Brooks (2015). Morphological variation in spring migrant and wintering American Golden-Plovers Pluvialis dominica. Wader Study 122:128–134. Close ), 147–238 g (62 Stodola, K. W., B. J. O'Neal, M. G. Alessi, J. L. Deppe, T. R. Dallas, T. A. Beveroth, T. J. Benson, and M. P. Ward (2014). Stopover ecology of American Golden-Plovers (Pluvialis dominica) in Midwestern agricultural fields. Condor 116:162–172. Close ).