Demography and Populations

The Eurasian Griffon typically reaches sexual maturity at about four years old. Nesting rates of territorial pairs varies between 67–96%. Pairs typically lay one egg, and rarely two; replacement clutches can be laid when the egg is lost during incubation, but rarely after the first egg hatches. The highest proportion of nest failures occur during the egg stage. The number of fledglings per egg-laying pair varies between 0.45–0.95, and the number of fledglings per territorial pair that bred ranged between 0.52 and 0.80. A maximum life span in the wild of at least 35 years has been recorded. A survival rate of 0.65 has been calculated for the first year of life (lower in pale-colored males that in darker ones), higher annual survival rates (0.94) between ages two and 27 years, and then lower survival rates of 0.82 after 28 years of life.

Age At First Breeding

In the Grands Causses (France), the Eurasian Griffon begins breeding after four to five years (238 Sarrazin, F., C. Bagnolini, J. L. Pinna, and E. Danchin (1996). Breeding biology during establishment of a reintroduced Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus population. Ibis 138: 315–325. Close ). Most Eurasian Griffon at Hoces del Rio Riaza Natural Park, Segovia (Spain) breed for the first time at around 6 years of age (n = 154; 236 Martínez, F., M. Carrete, and G. Blanco (2024). Spatial, social and environmental factors influencing natal dispersal in the colonial griffon vulture. Current Zoology: zoae037. Close ). Sexual maturity and reproduction begins before obtaining adult plumage. Mixed pairs in Spain were comprised of one member with adult plumage and the other with subadult plumage; in all cases, the subadult partner was female (n = 22; 362 Blanco, G., and F. Martínez (1996). Sex Difference in Breeding Age of Griffon Vultures (Gyps fulvus). The Auk 113(1): 247–248. Close ). In Crete (Greece), 89.5% of territorial pairs were comprised of adult plumaged birds, 10.1% were mixed pairs with one adult and one subadult plumaged bird, and 0.4% of pairs were comprised of two subadult plumaged birds (n = 514; 391 Xirouchakis, S. M. (2010). Breeding biology and reproductive performance of Griffon Vultures Gyps fulvus on the island of Crete (Greece). Bird Study 57(2): 213–225. Close ).

Intervals Between Breeding

The intervals between breeding events in territorial pairs are not known. However, there is information on the nesting rates of territorial pairs. In Crete (Greece), the mean annual nesting rate of territorial pairs recorded over 10 years was 70% ± 5.6 SD (range 62.2–77.6, n = 1,418 pairs; 391 Xirouchakis, S. M. (2010). Breeding biology and reproductive performance of Griffon Vultures Gyps fulvus on the island of Crete (Greece). Bird Study 57(2): 213–225. Close ). In other areas, nesting rates of territorial pairs ranged between 67% in Serbia (417 Marinković, S., and L. Orlandić (1994). Status of the Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus in Serbia. In Raptor Conservation Today (B. U. Meyburg, and R. D. Chancellor, Editors), The Pica Press, Berlin, Germany. pp. 163–172. Close ), 73% in Sardinia (Italy; 418 Aresu, M., and H. Schenk (2005). Status e conservacione del Grifone (Gyps fulvus) in Sardegna. In II Grifone in Italia (C. Avesani, Editor), Parco Natura Viva, Verona, Italy. pp. 30–39. Close ), 80% in Castellón (Spain; 398 López-López, P., C. García-Ripollés, and J. Verdejo (2004). Population status and reproductive performance of Eurasian griffons (Gyps fulvus) in eastern Spain. Journal of Raptor Research 38(4): 350–356. Close ), 82% in the Pyrenees Mountains (Spain; 419 Arroyo, B., E. Ferreiro, and V. Garza (1990). II Censo Nacional de Buitre Leonado (Gyps fulvus): Población, Distribución, Demografía y Conservación. ICONA, Madrid, Spain. Close ), 84% in León (Spain; 420 Olea, P. P., J. García, and J. Falagán (1999). Expansión del buitre leonado Gyps fulvus: tamaño de la población y parámetros reproductores en un área de reciente colonización. Ardeola 46(1): 81–88. Close ), 87% in the Basque region (421 Rodríguez, A., and R. Arambarri (1996). Distribución, población y parámetros reproductores del Buitre Leonado (Gyps fulvus) en el territorio histórico de Álava – 1995. Estudios del Museo de Ciencias Naturales de Álava 10–11: 329–336. Close ), 95% in Guipúzcoa (Spain; 392 Lekuona, J. M. (1998). Fenología y parámetros reproductores del Buitre Leonado (Gyps fulvus) en una colonia de Guipúzcoa (N España) (1984-1993). Miscellania Zoologica 21(1): 53–59. Close ), 87–96% in Navarra (Spain; 422 Donázar, J. A., J. Elósegui, and A. Senosiain (1988). Éxito reproductor del buitre leonado (Gyps fulvus) en Navarra. Doñana Acta Vertebrata 15: 187–192. Close ), 95% in the Cantabrian Mountains (Spain; 419 Arroyo, B., E. Ferreiro, and V. Garza (1990). II Censo Nacional de Buitre Leonado (Gyps fulvus): Población, Distribución, Demografía y Conservación. ICONA, Madrid, Spain. Close ), and 96% in Hoces del Duratón Natural Park (Segovia, Spain; 423 Sánchez-Aguado, F. J., and E. Hernández (1993). Reproducción del Buitre leonado (Gyps fulvus) en la cuenca del río Duratón (Segovia, España). Alytes 6: 87–98. Close ).

Annual and Lifetime Reproductive Success

Hatching Success

In Crete (Greece), the proportion of eggs hatched compared to the total number of eggs laid was 87.2% (n = 998) from 1996–2005 (391 Xirouchakis, S. M. (2010). Breeding biology and reproductive performance of Griffon Vultures Gyps fulvus on the island of Crete (Greece). Bird Study 57(2): 213–225. Close ). On the islands of the Kvarner Gulf (Croatia), hatching success in 2017 was 70% (n = 108), but it varied between 62% (n = 40) and 94% (n = 19) in two colonies on Cres Island (424 Kapelj, S., and M. Modrić (2017). Monitoring of Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus population of Kvarner area in 2017. Larus 52: 74–75. Close ). In Cyprus, hatching success was 78% (n = 104; 185 Iezekiel, S., D. E. Bakaloudis, and C. G. Vlachos (2004). The status and conservation of Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus in Cyprus. In Raptors Worldwide. Proceedings of the 6th World Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls May 2003, Budapest, Hungary (R. D. Chancellor and B.-U. Meyburg, Editors), World Working Group on Birds of Prey and Owls and MME/BirdLife Hungary, Penti Kft. Budapest, Hungary. pp. 67–73. Close ).

In Crete, the highest proportion of nest failures occurred during the egg stage. Most failed breeding attempts were recorded during incubation (50%), 16% during hatching, and 34% during chick-rearing (n = 70; 391 Xirouchakis, S. M. (2010). Breeding biology and reproductive performance of Griffon Vultures Gyps fulvus on the island of Crete (Greece). Bird Study 57(2): 213–225. Close ).

Breeding Success

Across populations, breeding success (the number of fledglings per egg-laying pair per year) appears to be related to climatic conditions, date of laying, the ages of the breeding pair, colony size, and colony density.

In Crete, breeding success was negatively associated with the duration of spring rainfall (391 Xirouchakis, S. M. (2010). Breeding biology and reproductive performance of Griffon Vultures Gyps fulvus on the island of Crete (Greece). Bird Study 57(2): 213–225. Close ). Similar results were recorded in the Pyrenees (France-Spain; 425 Leconte, M. (1985). Present status of the Griffon Vulture on the northern slopes of the Western Pyrenees. In Conservation Studies on Raptors (I. Newton and R. D. Chancellor, Editors), ICBP Technical Publication Nº 5, Cambridge, UK. pp. 117–127. Close , 422 Donázar, J. A., J. Elósegui, and A. Senosiain (1988). Éxito reproductor del buitre leonado (Gyps fulvus) en Navarra. Doñana Acta Vertebrata 15: 187–192. Close ). While there is evidence that weather can affect reproductive success, there is little information on how nest site selection affects reproductive success. In Valdemaqueda and Robledo de Chavela (Madrid, Spain), 23 nests were documented on cliffs and four nests in trees in 2004; all of them fledged (426 Traverso, J. M. (2004). Censo de la población nidificante (año 2004) e invernante (años 2002 y 2004) del buitre leonado (Gyps fulvus) en la Comunidad de Madrid. Anuario Ornitológico de Madrid 2004: 142–151. Close ).

Early breeders were more successful than mid- and late-season breeders, and adult pairs had a higher breeding success (0.81) than mixed pairs of adults and subadults (0.25; 391 Xirouchakis, S. M. (2010). Breeding biology and reproductive performance of Griffon Vultures Gyps fulvus on the island of Crete (Greece). Bird Study 57(2): 213–225. Close ). Individuals hatched earlier in the breeding season also showed higher productivity in later years than those that hatched later in the season (18 Fargallo, J. A., F. Martínez, K. Wakamatsu, D. Serrano, and G. Blanco (2018). Sex-Dependent Expression and Fitness Consequences of Sunlight-Derived Color Phenotypes. The American Naturalist 191(6): 726–743. Close ).

In Crete (Greece), there was no significant variation in breeding success recorded among colonies of 1–13 pairs (± 5 SD, n = 23; 391 Xirouchakis, S. M. (2010). Breeding biology and reproductive performance of Griffon Vultures Gyps fulvus on the island of Crete (Greece). Bird Study 57(2): 213–225. Close ). However, in Navarra (Spain), one study monitored the number of breeding pairs within a 25 km radius of a colony and found that regional density was the main factor influencing breeding success: as the density of breeding pairs in the area increased, the chances of successfully raising young decreased (427 Fernández, C., P. Azkona, and J. A. Donázar (2008). Density-dependent effects on productivity in the griffon vulture Gyps fulvus: the role of interference and habitat heterogeneity. Ibis 140(1): 64–69. Close ).

In Sardinia (Italy), breeding success was higher in nests exposed to a high wind speed, not covered by natural shelters, where the vegetation was mostly represented by shrubs and pastures, in areas with low human disturbance, and in years with low rainfall (369 Aresu, M., M. G. Pennino, D. De Rosa, A. Rotta, and F. Berlinguer (2021). Modelling the effect of environmental variables on the reproductive success of Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus) in Sardinia, Italy. Ibis 164(1):255–266. Close ).

According to Spanish national censuses, breeding success decreased from 0.78 in 1989 (n = 931) to 0.75 in 1999 (n = 5,862), 0.67 in 2008 (n = 12,166), and 0.63 in 2018 (n = 10,130; 368 Del Moral, J. C., and B. Molina, Editors (2018). El buitre leonado en España, población reproductora en 2018 y método de censo. Programas de seguimiento de avifauna de SEO/BirdLife, 50, SEO/BirdLife, Madrid, Spain. Close ). See Population Regulation.

The rate of breeding success varies across the range of the Eurasian Griffon: it has been recorded as 0.45 in Georgia (428 Abuladze, A. (1985). Raptors in East Georgia recent survey. In Acta XVIII Congressus Internationalis Ornitologicus, 2, Nauka Publishers, Moscow, Russia. pp. 120. Close ), <0.50 in Israel (108 Shirihai, H. (1996). The Birds of Israel: A Complete Avifauna and Bird Atlas of Israel. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ), 0.50 in Hoces de Riaza (Spain; 429 Martínez, F., R. F. Rodríguez, and G. Blanco (1997). Effects of monitoring frequency on estimates of abundance, age distribution, and productivity of colonial Griffon Vultures. Journal of Field Ornithology 68: 392–399. Close ), 0.52–0.86 in Navarra Region (Spain; 422 Donázar, J. A., J. Elósegui, and A. Senosiain (1988). Éxito reproductor del buitre leonado (Gyps fulvus) en Navarra. Doñana Acta Vertebrata 15: 187–192. Close ), 0.57 in Grand Causses (France; 238 Sarrazin, F., C. Bagnolini, J. L. Pinna, and E. Danchin (1996). Breeding biology during establishment of a reintroduced Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus population. Ibis 138: 315–325. Close ), 0.60 in Croatia (176 Pavokovic, G., and G. Susic (2006). Population viability analysis of (Eurasian) Griffon vulture Gyps fulvus in Croatia. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Conservation and Management of Vulture Populations (D. C. Houston and S. E. Piper, Editors), Natural History Museum of Crete & WWF-Hellas, Salonica, Greece. pp. 75–86. Close ), 0.61 in Sardinia (Italy; 184 Schenk, H., M. Aresu, and G. Serra (1987). Sull’ecologia e sulla conservazione del Grifone (Gyps fulvus) nella Sardegna nord-occidentale, 1971-1984. Supplemento Ricerche di Biologia della Selvaggina 12: 217–233. Close ), 0.67 in the Cataluña Region (Spain; 430 Marco, X., and D. García (1981). Situation actuelle des populations de nécrophages (Gyps fulvus, Gypaetus barbatus et Neophron percnopterus) en Catalogne. Rapaces Mediterranéens 1: 119–129. Close ), 0.67 in Guipúzcoa (Basque region, Spain; 431 Aierbe, T., M. Olano, and J. Vázquez (2002). Situación actual de las poblaciones de los necrófagos Buitre leonado (Gyps fulvus), Alimoche Común (Neophron percnopterus) y Quebrantahuesos (Gypaetus barbatus) en Gipuzkoa. Munibe (Ciencias Naturales-Natur Zientziak) 53: 211–228. Close ), 0.67 in Uzbekistan (432 Til’ba, P. A. (2001). The Griffon Vulture. In Red Data Book of the Russian Federation. ACT & Astrel Press, Moscow, Russia. pp. 452–454. Close ), 0.68 in León (Spain; 420 Olea, P. P., J. García, and J. Falagán (1999). Expansión del buitre leonado Gyps fulvus: tamaño de la población y parámetros reproductores en un área de reciente colonización. Ardeola 46(1): 81–88. Close ), 0.68 in Hoces del Duratón Natural Park (Spain; 423 Sánchez-Aguado, F. J., and E. Hernández (1993). Reproducción del Buitre leonado (Gyps fulvus) en la cuenca del río Duratón (Segovia, España). Alytes 6: 87–98. Close ), 0.68 in Alava (Basque region, Spain; 421 Rodríguez, A., and R. Arambarri (1996). Distribución, población y parámetros reproductores del Buitre Leonado (Gyps fulvus) en el territorio histórico de Álava – 1995. Estudios del Museo de Ciencias Naturales de Álava 10–11: 329–336. Close ), 0.69 in Riba–Côa (Portugal; 433 Van Beest, F., L. van den Bremer, W. F. de Boer, I. M. A. Heitkönig, and A. E. Monteiro (2008). Population dynamics and spatial distribution of Griffon Vultures (Gyps fulvus) in Portugal. Bird Conservation International 18: 102–117. Close ), 0.70 in the Mediterranean Alps (France; 182 Terrasse, M. (2006). Long term reintroduction projects of Griffon Gyps fulvus and Black Vultures Aegypius monachus in France. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Conservation and Management of Vulture Populations. 14–16 November 2005, Thessaloniki, Greece (D. C. Houston and S. E. Piper, Editors), Natural History Museum of Crete and WWF Greece, Athens, Greece. pp. 98–107. Close ), 0.71 in the Eastern Rhodope Mountains (Bulgaria; 434 Demerdzhiev, D., H. Hristov, D. Dobrev, I. Angelov, and M. Kurtev (2014). Long-term Population Status, Breeding Parameters and Limiting Factors of the Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus Hablizl, 1783) Population in the Eastern Rhodopes, Bulgaria. Acta Zoologica Bulgarica 66(3): 373–384. Close ), 0.73 in Bulgaria (435 Hristov, H. (2004). The situation of the Griffon Vulture in Bulgaria. In The Eurasian Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus) in Europe and the Mediterranean, Status Report and Action Plan (L. Slotta-Bachmayr, R. Boegel and A. Camiña, Editors), EGVWG, Salzburg Zoo, Salzburg, Austria. pp. 28–31. Close ), 0.74 in Crete (Greece; 391 Xirouchakis, S. M. (2010). Breeding biology and reproductive performance of Griffon Vultures Gyps fulvus on the island of Crete (Greece). Bird Study 57(2): 213–225. Close ), 0.74 in Cyprus (185 Iezekiel, S., D. E. Bakaloudis, and C. G. Vlachos (2004). The status and conservation of Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus in Cyprus. In Raptors Worldwide. Proceedings of the 6th World Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls May 2003, Budapest, Hungary (R. D. Chancellor and B.-U. Meyburg, Editors), World Working Group on Birds of Prey and Owls and MME/BirdLife Hungary, Penti Kft. Budapest, Hungary. pp. 67–73. Close ), 0.76 in the Pyrenees (France; 395 Leconte, M., and J. Som (1996). La reproduccion du Vautour Fauve Gyps fulvus dans les Pyrénées Occidentales: historique d’une restauration d’effectifs et paramètres reproducteurs. Alauda 64: 135–148. Close ), 0.77 in Sardinia (Italy; 418 Aresu, M., and H. Schenk (2005). Status e conservacione del Grifone (Gyps fulvus) in Sardegna. In II Grifone in Italia (C. Avesani, Editor), Parco Natura Viva, Verona, Italy. pp. 30–39. Close ), 0.77 in the Pyrenees (Spain; 419 Arroyo, B., E. Ferreiro, and V. Garza (1990). II Censo Nacional de Buitre Leonado (Gyps fulvus): Población, Distribución, Demografía y Conservación. ICONA, Madrid, Spain. Close ), 0.81 in Serbia (436 Marinković, S., I. Hribšek, N. Tatalović, and S. Skorić (2020). A long-term population study of the Eurasian griffon (Gyps fulvus) in Serbia before and following the establishment of a supplementary feeding program. Ethology Ecology & Evolution 33(2): 137–155. Close ), 0.83 in Castellón (Spain; 398 López-López, P., C. García-Ripollés, and J. Verdejo (2004). Population status and reproductive performance of Eurasian griffons (Gyps fulvus) in eastern Spain. Journal of Raptor Research 38(4): 350–356. Close ), 0.84 in the Cantabrian Mountains (Spain; 419 Arroyo, B., E. Ferreiro, and V. Garza (1990). II Censo Nacional de Buitre Leonado (Gyps fulvus): Población, Distribución, Demografía y Conservación. ICONA, Madrid, Spain. Close ), 0.85 in Ukraine (437 Mnatsekanov, R. A. (1990). Griffon Vulture on Lagonakskom upland. In Rare, Small in Numbers and Insufficiently Known Explored Birds of Northern Caucasus. Stavropol Publishing House, Stavropol, Russia. pp. 40–44. Close ), 0.87 in Guipúzcoa (Spain; 392 Lekuona, J. M. (1998). Fenología y parámetros reproductores del Buitre Leonado (Gyps fulvus) en una colonia de Guipúzcoa (N España) (1984-1993). Miscellania Zoologica 21(1): 53–59. Close ), 0.89 in Serbia (417 Marinković, S., and L. Orlandić (1994). Status of the Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus in Serbia. In Raptor Conservation Today (B. U. Meyburg, and R. D. Chancellor, Editors), The Pica Press, Berlin, Germany. pp. 163–172. Close ), 0.95 in Cyprus (185 Iezekiel, S., D. E. Bakaloudis, and C. G. Vlachos (2004). The status and conservation of Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus in Cyprus. In Raptors Worldwide. Proceedings of the 6th World Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls May 2003, Budapest, Hungary (R. D. Chancellor and B.-U. Meyburg, Editors), World Working Group on Birds of Prey and Owls and MME/BirdLife Hungary, Penti Kft. Budapest, Hungary. pp. 67–73. Close ), and 100% in Turkmenistan (340 Efimenko N. N. (2008). Griffon Vulture within Turkmenistan. Strepet 6(1): 93–106. Close ).

Estimates of Productivity

Similar to estimates of breeding success, estimates of productivity (the number of fledglings per territorial pair per year) varies across the species' range and over time: it has been recorded as 0.43 in Sardinia (Italy; 184 Schenk, H., M. Aresu, and G. Serra (1987). Sull’ecologia e sulla conservazione del Grifone (Gyps fulvus) nella Sardegna nord-occidentale, 1971-1984. Supplemento Ricerche di Biologia della Selvaggina 12: 217–233. Close ), 0.52 in Crete (Greece; 391 Xirouchakis, S. M. (2010). Breeding biology and reproductive performance of Griffon Vultures Gyps fulvus on the island of Crete (Greece). Bird Study 57(2): 213–225. Close ), 0.56 in Sardinia (Italy; 418 Aresu, M., and H. Schenk (2005). Status e conservacione del Grifone (Gyps fulvus) in Sardegna. In II Grifone in Italia (C. Avesani, Editor), Parco Natura Viva, Verona, Italy. pp. 30–39. Close ), 0.57 in Serbia (436 Marinković, S., I. Hribšek, N. Tatalović, and S. Skorić (2020). A long-term population study of the Eurasian griffon (Gyps fulvus) in Serbia before and following the establishment of a supplementary feeding program. Ethology Ecology & Evolution 33(2): 137–155. Close ), 0.57 in León (Spain; 420 Olea, P. P., J. García, and J. Falagán (1999). Expansión del buitre leonado Gyps fulvus: tamaño de la población y parámetros reproductores en un área de reciente colonización. Ardeola 46(1): 81–88. Close ), 0.59 in Alava (Basque region, Spain; 421 Rodríguez, A., and R. Arambarri (1996). Distribución, población y parámetros reproductores del Buitre Leonado (Gyps fulvus) en el territorio histórico de Álava – 1995. Estudios del Museo de Ciencias Naturales de Álava 10–11: 329–336. Close ), 0.50–0.75 in Navarra (Spain; 422 Donázar, J. A., J. Elósegui, and A. Senosiain (1988). Éxito reproductor del buitre leonado (Gyps fulvus) en Navarra. Doñana Acta Vertebrata 15: 187–192. Close ), 0.60 in Serbia (417 Marinković, S., and L. Orlandić (1994). Status of the Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus in Serbia. In Raptor Conservation Today (B. U. Meyburg, and R. D. Chancellor, Editors), The Pica Press, Berlin, Germany. pp. 163–172. Close ), 0.63 in the Pyrenees Mountains (Spain; 419 Arroyo, B., E. Ferreiro, and V. Garza (1990). II Censo Nacional de Buitre Leonado (Gyps fulvus): Población, Distribución, Demografía y Conservación. ICONA, Madrid, Spain. Close ), 0.65 in Guipúzcoa (Basque region, Spain; 431 Aierbe, T., M. Olano, and J. Vázquez (2002). Situación actual de las poblaciones de los necrófagos Buitre leonado (Gyps fulvus), Alimoche Común (Neophron percnopterus) y Quebrantahuesos (Gypaetus barbatus) en Gipuzkoa. Munibe (Ciencias Naturales-Natur Zientziak) 53: 211–228. Close ), 0.65 in Hoces del Duratón Natural Park (Segovia, Spain; 423 Sánchez-Aguado, F. J., and E. Hernández (1993). Reproducción del Buitre leonado (Gyps fulvus) en la cuenca del río Duratón (Segovia, España). Alytes 6: 87–98. Close ), 0.66 in Castellón (Spain; 398 López-López, P., C. García-Ripollés, and J. Verdejo (2004). Population status and reproductive performance of Eurasian griffons (Gyps fulvus) in eastern Spain. Journal of Raptor Research 38(4): 350–356. Close ), 0.71 in the Eastern Rhodope mountains (Bulgaria; 434 Demerdzhiev, D., H. Hristov, D. Dobrev, I. Angelov, and M. Kurtev (2014). Long-term Population Status, Breeding Parameters and Limiting Factors of the Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus Hablizl, 1783) Population in the Eastern Rhodopes, Bulgaria. Acta Zoologica Bulgarica 66(3): 373–384. Close ), 0.74 in Cyprus (185 Iezekiel, S., D. E. Bakaloudis, and C. G. Vlachos (2004). The status and conservation of Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus in Cyprus. In Raptors Worldwide. Proceedings of the 6th World Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls May 2003, Budapest, Hungary (R. D. Chancellor and B.-U. Meyburg, Editors), World Working Group on Birds of Prey and Owls and MME/BirdLife Hungary, Penti Kft. Budapest, Hungary. pp. 67–73. Close ), 0.76 in Guipúzcoa (Spain; 392 Lekuona, J. M. (1998). Fenología y parámetros reproductores del Buitre Leonado (Gyps fulvus) en una colonia de Guipúzcoa (N España) (1984-1993). Miscellania Zoologica 21(1): 53–59. Close ), and 0.80 in the Cantabrian Mountains (Spain; 419 Arroyo, B., E. Ferreiro, and V. Garza (1990). II Censo Nacional de Buitre Leonado (Gyps fulvus): Población, Distribución, Demografía y Conservación. ICONA, Madrid, Spain. Close ).

The effect of colony size on productivity does not seem to affect small colonies, in which interference competition would be low, but in large colonies it is more evident. In Crete (Greece), no significant variation was recorded in productivity among colonies of 1–13 pairs (n = 23 ± 5 SD; 391 Xirouchakis, S. M. (2010). Breeding biology and reproductive performance of Griffon Vultures Gyps fulvus on the island of Crete (Greece). Bird Study 57(2): 213–225. Close ). In Spain, productivity was higher (0.72) in smaller colonies (11–30 pairs) and lower (0.59) in larger colonies (>90 pairs; 419 Arroyo, B., E. Ferreiro, and V. Garza (1990). II Censo Nacional de Buitre Leonado (Gyps fulvus): Población, Distribución, Demografía y Conservación. ICONA, Madrid, Spain. Close ).

According to Spanish national censuses, productivity decreased from 0.65 (1989), to 0.62 (2008), and 0.56 (2018; 368 Del Moral, J. C., and B. Molina, Editors (2018). El buitre leonado en España, población reproductora en 2018 y método de censo. Programas de seguimiento de avifauna de SEO/BirdLife, 50, SEO/BirdLife, Madrid, Spain. Close ). See Population Regulation.

Lifetime Reproductive Success

There is no information about lifetime reproductive success in the Eurasian Griffon. In 100 birds followed from birth to the age of 16 years (including those that did not survive) in Hoces del Riaza Natural Park (Segovia, Spain), the darkest plumaged individuals showed a tendency to produce more offspring than the lightest (18 Fargallo, J. A., F. Martínez, K. Wakamatsu, D. Serrano, and G. Blanco (2018). Sex-Dependent Expression and Fitness Consequences of Sunlight-Derived Color Phenotypes. The American Naturalist 191(6): 726–743. Close ).

The oldest Eurasian Griffon documented in a study in France was at least 35 years old (438 Chantepie, S., C. Teplitsky, S. Pavard, F. Sarrazin, B. Descaves, P. Lecuyer, and A. Robert (2016). Age-related variation and temporal patterns in the survival of a long-lived scavenger. Oikos 125(2): 167–178. Close ); another study recorded a maximum life span of 41.4 years for a Eurasian Griffon in captivity (439 Carey, J. R., and D. S. Judge (2000). Longevity Records: Life Spans of Mammals, Birds, Amphibians, Reptiles, and Fish. Odense Monographs on Population Aging, No. 8. University Press of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark. Close ).

A 32-year study of banded Eurasian Griffon in Grands Causses (France) showed an estimated survival rate of 0.65 during the first year of life (n = 1,152). Between ages two and 27 years, the estimated annual survival rates (0.94) were high and stable, and there was little heterogeneity among individuals. Beyond 28 years, individuals were classified as senescent, and the annual survival rate decreased to 0.82. The temporal variation in the survival of senescent birds was negatively and marginally associated with the range of temperatures during winter and summer. There was greater temporal variation in the annual survival probabilities in the juvenile and senescent age classes (438 Chantepie, S., C. Teplitsky, S. Pavard, F. Sarrazin, B. Descaves, P. Lecuyer, and A. Robert (2016). Age-related variation and temporal patterns in the survival of a long-lived scavenger. Oikos 125(2): 167–178. Close ). Another study in Hoces del Riaza Natural Park (Segovia, Spain) showed differences in survival related to the sex and plumage color of fledglings. Darker males had higher survival rates (0.86 ± 0.12 SE) during their first year than paler ones (0.39 ± 0.25 SE); contrary to the pattern in males, paler females in their first year had higher survival rates (0.92 ± 0.09 SE) than darker females (0.81 ± 0.16 SE), though the differences were less pronounced than in males (18 Fargallo, J. A., F. Martínez, K. Wakamatsu, D. Serrano, and G. Blanco (2018). Sex-Dependent Expression and Fitness Consequences of Sunlight-Derived Color Phenotypes. The American Naturalist 191(6): 726–743. Close ).

Eurasian Griffon survival may also vary depending on habitat degradation. Mean estimated yearly survival rates were lower in an area with more anthropogenic disturbance (0.817 ± 0.043 SE, n = 36, Middle Ebro Valley, northeastern Spain) than in a more natural area (0.968 ± 0.018 SE, n = 30, Sierras de Cazorla Segura y las Villas Natural Park, southeastern Spain; 440 Arrondo, E., A. Sanz-Aguilar, J. M. Pérez-García, A. Cortés-Avizanda, J. A. Sánchez-Zapata, and J. A. Donázar (2020). Landscape anthropization shapes the survival of a top avian scavenger. Biodiversity and Conservation 29:1411–1425. Close ). Individuals living in more anthropized areas of northern Spain had shorter telomeres and elevated levels of glucocorticoid hormones than those living in more natural areas of southern Spain (441 Gangoso, L., A. Cortés-Avizanda, A. Sergiel, B. Pudifoot, F. Miranda, J. Muñoz, A. Delgado-González, M. Moleón, J. A. Sánchez-Zapata, E. Arrondo, and J. A. Donázar (2021). Avian scavengers living in anthropized landscapes have shorter telomeres and higher levels of glucocorticoid hormones. Science of the Total Environment 782:146920. Close ).

Disease

Zoonotic pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, various single-celled parasites, fungi, and even human pathogens, have been found in the Eurasian Griffon. Some of these pathogens have been bacteria associated with supplemental feeding stations and presented resistance to multiple antibiotics (442 Plaza, P. I., G. Blanco, and S. A. Lambertucci (2020). Implications of bacterial, viral and mycotic microorganisms in vultures for wildlife conservation, ecosystem services and public health. Ibis 162: 1109–1124. Close ).

Several bacteria have been recorded in the Eurasian Griffon, but its effects on the host are not well known. The infectious disease salmonellosis, caused by bacteria of the genus Salmonella, has been found in the present species (443 Millán, J., G. Aduriz, B. Moreno, R. A. Juste, and M. Barral (2004). Salmonella isolates from wild birds and mammals in the Basque Country (Spain). Revue Scientifique et Technique Office International des Epizooties 23(3): 905–911. Close , 444 Molina-López, R. A., A. Vidal, E. Obón, M. Martín, and L. Darwich (2015). Multidrug-resistant Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium Monophasic Variant 4,12:i:- Isolated from asymptomatic wildlife in a Catalonian Wildlife Rehabilitation Center, Spain. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 51(3):759–763. Close ). Salmonella was isolated in 52.6% of the individuals in a sample (n = 97) from Spain (445 Marín, C., M. D. Palomeque, F. Marco-Jiménez, and S. Vega (2014). Wild Griffon Vultures (Gyps fulvus) as a source of Salmonella and Campylobacter in eastern Spain. PLoS ONE 9(4):e94191. Close ). In a sample from northeastern Spain (n = 218), antimicrobial resistant Salmonella sp. and Campylobacter lari were isolated in 8.1% and 4.7% of individuals, respectively (446 Espunyes, J., L. Illera, A. Dias-Alves, L. Lobato, M. Puig Ribas, A. Manzanares, T. Ayats, I. Marco, and M. Cerdà-Cuéllar (2022). Eurasian griffon vultures carry widespread antimicrobial resistant Salmonella and Campylobacter of public health concern. Science of The Total Environment 844:157189. Close ).

Avian tuberculosis, caused by Mycobacterium avium, was detected in a Eurasian Griffon found dead in Serbia (447 Nesic, V., D. Marinkovic, K. Matovic, M. Radakovic, D. Davitkov, N. Vasković, and D. Davitkov (2022). Avian tuberculosis in a free-living Eurasian griffon vulture. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 34(4):723–726. Close ). Rickettsia spp., an intracellular bacteria, and Anaplasma phagocytophilum, a bacteria transmitted by ticks and causing anaplasmosis, have been detected in Eurasian Griffon from Spain (448 Moraga-Fernández, A., P. Oliva-Vidal, M. Sánchez-Sánchez, C. Muñoz-Hernández, J. M. Martínez, A. Margalida, J. De la Fuente, and I. G. Fernández de Mera (2023). Health risks associated with argasid ticks, transmitted pathogens, and blood parasites in Pyrenean griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) nestlings. European Journal of Wildlife Research 69:112. Close ).

Coxiella burnetii, the intracellular bacterial pathogen that causes Q fever, was detected in birds in the Basque region (Spain; 449 Astobiza, I., M. Barral, F. Ruiz-Fons, J. F. Barandika, X. Gerrikagoitia, A. Hurtado, and A. L. García-Pérez (2011). Molecular investigation of the occurrence of Coxiella burnetii in wildlife and ticks in an endemic area. Veterinary Microbiology 147(1-2): 190–194. Close ). Staphylococcus aureus, a commensal bacterium of the human microbiota that can become an opportunistic pathogen, has also been detected in the Eurasian Griffon (450 Porrero, M. C., G. Mentaberre, S. Sánchez, P. Fernández-Llario, E. Casas-Díaz, A. Mateos, D. Vidal, S. Lavin, J. F. Fernández-Garayzabal, and L. Domínguez (2014). Carriage of Staphylococcus aureus by Free-Living Wild Animals in Spain. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 80(16): 4865–4870. Close ). In the wild, Eurasian Griffon can be natural reservoirs of Chlamydiaceae spp., as detected in Spain (451 Ortega, N., D. Apaza, F. González, J. Salinas, and M. R. Caro (2012). Occurrence of Chlamydiaceae in non-symptomatic free-living raptors in Spain. European Journal of Wildlife Research 58(1): 351–355. Close ). Another bacterium detected in the species from southern Spain is Mycoplasma spp. (452 Poveda, J. B., J. Carranza, A. Miranda, A. Garrido, M. Hermoso, A. Fernández, and J. Domenech (1990). An epizootiological study of avian mycoplasmas in southern Spain. Avian Pathology 19(4): 627–633. Close ). Two Mycoplasma strains were also isolated in a sample of four Eurasian Griffon from Sardinia (Italy; 453 Lecis, R., B. Chessa, C. Cacciotto, M. F. Addis, E. Coradduzza, F. Berlinguer, M. Muzzeddu, M. Lierz, L. Carcangiu, M. Pittau, and A. Alberti (2010). Identification and characterization of novel Mycoplasma spp. belonging to the hominis group from griffon vultures. Research in Veterinary Science 89: 58–64. Close ). Mycoplasmas (Mycoplasma gallinarum, Mycoplasma glycophilum, and a similar species to Mycoplasma falconis) were isolated in dead and sick Eurasian Griffon originated from Spain and kept in captivity in Sicily (Italy) to be reintroduced into the wild (454 Loria, G. R., E. Ferrantelli, G. Giardina, L. Li Vecchi, L. Sparacino, F. Oliveri, L. McAuliffe, and R. A. J. Nicholas (2008). Isolation and Characterization of Unusual Mycoplasma spp. from Captive Eurasian Griffon (Gyps fulvus) in Sicily. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 44(1):159–163. Close ).

Some serotypes of Escherichia coli can cause food poisoning in their hosts. In one study, 14 Escherichia coli strains were identified in 10 of 17 Eurasian Griffon from Alicante (Spain; 455 Mora, A., N. Ortega, E. García, S. Viso, M. G. Candela, G. Dahbi, F. Cuello, and M. R. Caro (2014). First Characterization of Escherichia coli Strains Isolated from Wildlife Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus) in the Southeast of Spain. Open Journal of Veterinary Medicine 4: 329–333. Close ). In another study of birds from Spain (n = 75), commensal and pathogenic bacteria were recorded; Escherichia coli and Enterococcus faecalis were isolated in cloacal and pharyngeal samples, Staphylococcus and Erysipelothrix in the pharynx, and Salmonella and Corynebacterium from the cloacae (456 Vela, A. I., E. Casas-Díaz, J. F. Fernández-Garayzabal, E. Serrano, S. Agustí, M. C. Porrero, V. Sánchez del Rey, I. Marco, S. Lavin, and L. Domínguez (2015). Estimation of Cultivable Bacterial Diversity in the Cloacae and Pharynx in Eurasian Griffon Vultures (Gyps fulvus). Microbial Ecology 69(3): 597–607. Close ). Two pathogens of pigs, Escherichia coli and Clostridioides difficile, were examined in wild birds fed pig carcasses at supplementary feeding stations in Comunidad Valenciana Region (Spain); Escherichia coli was isolated from 86.5% of samples, and Clostridioides difficile was detected in 2.9% samples (n = 104; 457 Sevilla, E., C. Marín, J. F. Delgado-Blas, B. González‐Zorn, S. Vega, E. Kuijper, R. Bolea, and R. C. Mainar-Jaime (2020). Wild griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus) fed at supplementary feeding stations: Potential carriers of pig pathogens and pig-derived antimicrobial resistance? Transboundary and Emerging Diseases 67(3): 1295–1305. Close ). In a site close to a landfill where Eurasian Griffon regularly fed on organic waste in Osona (Catalonia, Spain), high-risk Escherichia coli lineages associated with hospital infections were isolated from 39.9% of individuals (n = 218 total birds sampled; 458 Guitart-Matas, J., J. Espunyes, L. Illera, N. Gonzalez-Escalona, M. Puig Ribas, I. Marco, and L. Migura-Garcia (2024). High-risk lineages of extended spectrum cephalosporinase producing Escherichia coli from Eurasian griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus) foraging in landfills in north-eastern Spain. Science of the Total Environment 909:168625. Close ).

Several viruses have been found in the Eurasian Griffon. Flavivirus spp. were detected in birds from Spain (448 Moraga-Fernández, A., P. Oliva-Vidal, M. Sánchez-Sánchez, C. Muñoz-Hernández, J. M. Martínez, A. Margalida, J. De la Fuente, and I. G. Fernández de Mera (2023). Health risks associated with argasid ticks, transmitted pathogens, and blood parasites in Pyrenean griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) nestlings. European Journal of Wildlife Research 69:112. Close , 459 Williams, R. A. J., H. A. Criollo Valencia, I. López Márquez, F. González González, F. Llorente, M. A. Jiménez-Clavero, N. Busquets, M. Mateo Barrientos, G. Ortiz-Díez, and T. Ayllón Santiago (2024). West Nile Virus Seroprevalence in Wild Birds and Equines in Madrid Province, Spain. Veterinary Sciences 11:259. Close ), and Usutu virus, also a flavivirus that mainly infects Culex mosquitoes and birds, was detected in humans in Europe. Anti-Usutu virus specific antibodies were detected in one Eurasian Griffon from Extremadura Region (Spain; 460 Bravo-Barriga, D., P. Aguilera-Sepúlveda, F. Guerrero-Carvajal, F. Llorente, D. Reina, J. E. Pérez-Martín, M. A. Jiménez-Clavero, and E. Frontera (2021). West Nile and Usutu virus infections in wild birds admitted to rehabilitation centres in Extremadura, western Spain, 2017–2019. Veterinary Microbiology 255: 109020. Close ). West Nile virus is another flavivirus transmitted by mosquitoes to birds which has also been detected in humans. In wild Eurasian Griffon from Extremadura Region (Spain), specific antibodies against West Nile virus were detected in 18.18% of sampled individuals (n = 110; 460 Bravo-Barriga, D., P. Aguilera-Sepúlveda, F. Guerrero-Carvajal, F. Llorente, D. Reina, J. E. Pérez-Martín, M. A. Jiménez-Clavero, and E. Frontera (2021). West Nile and Usutu virus infections in wild birds admitted to rehabilitation centres in Extremadura, western Spain, 2017–2019. Veterinary Microbiology 255: 109020. Close ). West Nile virus was also detected in Eurasian Griffon found dead in Serbia (461 Marinković, D., V. Nešić, D. Davitkov, and M. Aničić (2023). Morbidity and Mortality causes in the European Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) population in Serbia (2018-2023). In 28th Annual Counselling of Doctors of Veterinary Medicine of Republic of Srpska (Bosnia and Hercegovina) International Scientific Meeting. Proceedings and short contents. pp. 107. Close ). Avian poxvirus and avian papillomavirus associated with cutaneous lesions have also been reported in Eurasian Griffon from Italy (462 Di Francesco, C. E., F. Profeta, M. Romanucci, R. Zuccarini, T. Altea, D. Malatesta, L. Della Salda, and F. Marsilio (2019). Evidence of avian poxvirus and papillomavirus infection in Gyps fulvus in Italy. Archives of Virology 164: 291–295. Close ).

Emerging diseases can cause mass mortality in the Eurasian Griffon. In Spain and France, hundreds of chicks and several adult Eurasian Griffon were found dead in 2022 during a pathogenic avian influenza outbreak (H5N1 HPAI virus). Infected birds showed periods of immobility at their nest or roost site over a period of 5.6 d on average (n = 21), and breeding success decreased from 0.69 between 2019 and 2021 to 0.27 in 2022 (463 Duriez, O., Y. Sassi, C. Le Gall-Ladevèze, L. Giraud, R. Straughan, L. Dauverné, A. Terras, T. Boulinier, R. Choquet, A. Van De Wiele, J. Hirschinger, J. L. Guérin, and G. Le Loc’h (2023). Highly pathogenic avian influenza affects vultures’ movements and breeding output. Current Biology 33:3766–3774. Close ).

Some Apicomplexa, a group of parasitic alveolates, have been recorded in the Eurasian Griffon. Species of the genus Babesia can infect vertebrates, including humans, with Babesia moshkovskii having been detected in the Eurasian Griffon (Spain; 464 Merino, S., M. A. Peirce, M. Fernández, and P. Lanzarot (2002). Redescription of Babesia moshkovskii (Schurenkova) from the griffon vulture Gyps fulvus (Hablizl). Journal of Natural History 36(14): 1635–1638. Close ). Antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii, a zoonotic intracellular parasite, have also been found in the species (Spain, 465 Cabezón, O., I. García-Bocanegra, R. Molina-López, I. Marco, J. M. Blanco, U. Höfle, A. Margalida, E. Bach-Raich, L. Darwich, I. Echeverría, E. Obón, M. Hernández, S. Lavín, J. P. Dubey, and S. Almería (2011). Seropositivity and Risk Factors Associated with Toxoplasma gondii Infection in Wild Birds from Spain. PloS ONE 6(12): e29549. Close , 466 Darwich, L., O. Cabezón, I. Echeverría, M. Pabón, I. Marco, R. Molina-López, O. Alarcia-Alejos, F. López-Gatius, S. Lavín, and S. Almería (2012). Presence of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum DNA in the brain of wild birds. Veterinary Parasitology 183(3–4): 377–381. Close ; Portugal, 467 Lopes, A. P., R. Sargo, M. Rodrigues, and L. Cardoso (2011). High seroprevalence of antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in wild animals from Portugal. Parasitology Research 108: 1163–1169. Close ); in Israel, 39.6% of sampled birds (n = 101) were found to be Toxoplasma gondii seropositive (468 Salant, H., J. Hamburger, R. King, and G. Baneth (2013). Toxoplasma gondii prevalence in Israeli crows and Griffon Vultures. Veterinary Parasitology 191(1–2): 23–28. Close ).

Lastly, yeasts (Fungi) have also been recorded in the Eurasian Griffon. In Spain, lesions have been found in the oral cavity of nestlings and adults produced by yeasts, mainly of the genus Candida. The number of lesions was significantly higher in nestlings (n = 29 individuals) than in adults (n = 54 individuals; 469 López-Rull, I., D. Hornero-Méndez, O. Frías, and G. Blanco (2015). Age-Related Relationships between Innate Immunity and Plasma Carotenoids in an Obligate Avian Scavenger. PloS ONE 10(11): e0141759. Close ). Aspergillosis, caused by the fungus Aspergillus sp., was detected in Eurasian Griffon found dead from Western Uttar Pradesh, India (470 Mariappan, A. K., P., Munusamy, S. K. Latheef, S. Kohale, A. Verma, B. Puvvala, K. Mathesh, and K. Dhama (2022). Grading of anatomopathological disparity in the cases of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in wild avian species as recorded in pigeons (Columba livia), peafowls (Pavo cristatus), and Griffon Vultures (Gyps fulvus). Archives of Razi Institute 77(1):301–313. Close ), and Serbia (461 Marinković, D., V. Nešić, D. Davitkov, and M. Aničić (2023). Morbidity and Mortality causes in the European Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) population in Serbia (2018-2023). In 28th Annual Counselling of Doctors of Veterinary Medicine of Republic of Srpska (Bosnia and Hercegovina) International Scientific Meeting. Proceedings and short contents. pp. 107. Close ). Avian aspergillosis was identified in Portugal as cause of mortality in three Eurasian Griffon (471 Garcês, A., I. Pires, R. Sargo, L. Sousa, J. Prada, and F. Silva (2023). Admission Causes, Morbidity, and Outcomes in Scavenger Birds in the North of Portugal (2005–2022). Animals 13:2093. Close ).

Body Parasites

Ectoparasites

Phthiraptera Amblycera: Nosopon casteli (Spain, 472 Pérez, J. M., and R. L. Palma (1998). First records of species of the genus Nosopon Hopkins, 1950 (Phthiraptera: Menoponidae) in Spain. Research and Reviews in Parasitology 58(2): 145–148. Close ; Portugal, 473 Tomás, A., R. L. Palma, M. T. Rebelo, I. Pereira da Fonseca (2016). Chewing lice (Phthiraptera) from wild birds in southern Portugal. Parasitology International 65(3): 295–301. Close ), Laemobothrion vulturis (Spain, 474 Martín Mateo, M. P. (1977). Primera cita para España de Laemobothrion vulturis (F., 1775) encontrado sobre Gyps fulvus (Habl.) (Malloph. Laemobothriidae). Graellsia 33: 221–226. Close , 475 Pérez, J. M., I. Ruiz-Martínez, and J. E. Cooper (1996). Occurrence of chewing lice on spanish raptors. Ardeola 43(2):129–138. Close , 476 Martín Mateo, M. P. (2002). Mallophaga Amblycera. Fauna Iberica. Volume 20. Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, CSIC, Madrid, Spain. Close , 477 Talabante, C., and I. Bernal (2022). Chewing lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera) found on Griffon Vultures (Gyps fulvus) from a wild breeding colony in central Spain. Vulture News 83:32–38. Close ; Portugal, 473 Tomás, A., R. L. Palma, M. T. Rebelo, I. Pereira da Fonseca (2016). Chewing lice (Phthiraptera) from wild birds in southern Portugal. Parasitology International 65(3): 295–301. Close ; Bulgaria, 478 Ilieva, M. (2009). Checklist of the chewing lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera) from wild birds in Bulgaria. Zootaxa 2138: 1–66. Close ; Iran, 479 Bahiraei, Z., A. Sazmand, J. Khedri, M. Babaei, E. Moeinifard, and B. Dik (2024). Chewing lice of wild birds in Iran: new data and a checklist of avian louse species reported in Iran. Frontiers in Veterinary Science 10:1324619. Close ), Neocolpocephalum gypsi (Italy, 480 Manilla, G., A. Gelsumini, B. Nissi, and G. Delitala (1989). Primi reperti di ectoparassiti di uccelli in Sardegna (Mallophaga e Ixodidae). Avocetta 13: 99–107. Close ; Iran, 479 Bahiraei, Z., A. Sazmand, J. Khedri, M. Babaei, E. Moeinifard, and B. Dik (2024). Chewing lice of wild birds in Iran: new data and a checklist of avian louse species reported in Iran. Frontiers in Veterinary Science 10:1324619. Close ), Colpocephalum turbinatum (Spain, 475 Pérez, J. M., I. Ruiz-Martínez, and J. E. Cooper (1996). Occurrence of chewing lice on spanish raptors. Ardeola 43(2):129–138. Close , 481 Martín Mateo, M. P. (2006). Diversidad y distribución de las especies de Mallophaga (Insecta) en aves y mamíferos de la Comunidad de Madrid. Graellsia 62: 21–32. Close , 477 Talabante, C., and I. Bernal (2022). Chewing lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera) found on Griffon Vultures (Gyps fulvus) from a wild breeding colony in central Spain. Vulture News 83:32–38. Close ; Portugal, 473 Tomás, A., R. L. Palma, M. T. Rebelo, I. Pereira da Fonseca (2016). Chewing lice (Phthiraptera) from wild birds in southern Portugal. Parasitology International 65(3): 295–301. Close ), Cuculiphilus gypsis (Spain, 481 Martín Mateo, M. P. (2006). Diversidad y distribución de las especies de Mallophaga (Insecta) en aves y mamíferos de la Comunidad de Madrid. Graellsia 62: 21–32. Close ; Bulgaria, 478 Ilieva, M. (2009). Checklist of the chewing lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera) from wild birds in Bulgaria. Zootaxa 2138: 1–66. Close ), Laemobothrion circi (= Laemobothrion maximum, Switzerland, 482 Bouvier, G. (1963). Contribution a l’étude des mallophages des oiseaux sauvages de la Suisse, plus spécialment de la Suisse occidentale. Mitteilungen der Schweizerischen Entomologischen Gesellschaft 36:63–72. Close ).

Phthiraptera Ischnocera: Falcolipeurus quadripustulatus ( India, 483 Tandan, B. K. (1964). Mallophaga from birds of the Indian subregion. Part VI Falcolipeurus Bedford. Proceedings of the Royal Entomological Society of London. Series B, Taxonomy 33: 173–180. Close ; Spain, 484 Martín Mateo, M. P., J. M. Aguirre, J. Gallego, and L. Colom (1984). Malófagos de rapaces españolas. 1. Estudio de especies de Falcolipeurus Bedford 1931 de Aegypidae. Eos 60: 87–100. Close , 475 Pérez, J. M., I. Ruiz-Martínez, and J. E. Cooper (1996). Occurrence of chewing lice on spanish raptors. Ardeola 43(2):129–138. Close , 477 Talabante, C., and I. Bernal (2022). Chewing lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera) found on Griffon Vultures (Gyps fulvus) from a wild breeding colony in central Spain. Vulture News 83:32–38. Close ; Bulgaria, 478 Ilieva, M. (2009). Checklist of the chewing lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera) from wild birds in Bulgaria. Zootaxa 2138: 1–66. Close ; Portugal , 473 Tomás, A., R. L. Palma, M. T. Rebelo, I. Pereira da Fonseca (2016). Chewing lice (Phthiraptera) from wild birds in southern Portugal. Parasitology International 65(3): 295–301. Close ; Iran, 479 Bahiraei, Z., A. Sazmand, J. Khedri, M. Babaei, E. Moeinifard, and B. Dik (2024). Chewing lice of wild birds in Iran: new data and a checklist of avian louse species reported in Iran. Frontiers in Veterinary Science 10:1324619. Close ), Falcolipeurus sulcifrons (Hungary, 485 Vas, Z., C. Privigyei, V. J. Prohászka, T. Csörgő, and L. Rózsa (2012). New species and host association records for the Hungarian avian louse fauna (Insecta: Phthiraptera). Ornis Hungarica 20(1):44–49. Close ), Aegypoecus trigonoceps (Spain, 486 Martín Mateo, M. P. (2009). Phthiraptera Ischnocera. Fauna Iberica. Volume 32. Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, CSIC, Madrid, Spain. Close ; Hungary, 485 Vas, Z., C. Privigyei, V. J. Prohászka, T. Csörgő, and L. Rózsa (2012). New species and host association records for the Hungarian avian louse fauna (Insecta: Phthiraptera). Ornis Hungarica 20(1):44–49. Close ; Bulgaria, 478 Ilieva, M. (2009). Checklist of the chewing lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera) from wild birds in Bulgaria. Zootaxa 2138: 1–66. Close ), Philopterus brevicollis (= Aegypoecus brevicollis, Switzerland, 482 Bouvier, G. (1963). Contribution a l’étude des mallophages des oiseaux sauvages de la Suisse, plus spécialment de la Suisse occidentale. Mitteilungen der Schweizerischen Entomologischen Gesellschaft 36:63–72. Close ), Esthiopterum monile (Switzerland, 482 Bouvier, G. (1963). Contribution a l’étude des mallophages des oiseaux sauvages de la Suisse, plus spécialment de la Suisse occidentale. Mitteilungen der Schweizerischen Entomologischen Gesellschaft 36:63–72. Close ).

Acari: Argas gilcolladoi (Spain, 487 Estrada-Peña, A., J. Lucientes, and C. Sánchez (1987). Argas (Persicargas) gilcolladoi n. sp. (Acarina: Argasidae): a parasite of the griffon vulture, Gyps fulvus, in Spain. Journal of Parasitology 73(4): 824–828. Close ), Argas persicus (Spain, 448 Moraga-Fernández, A., P. Oliva-Vidal, M. Sánchez-Sánchez, C. Muñoz-Hernández, J. M. Martínez, A. Margalida, J. De la Fuente, and I. G. Fernández de Mera (2023). Health risks associated with argasid ticks, transmitted pathogens, and blood parasites in Pyrenean griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) nestlings. European Journal of Wildlife Research 69:112. Close ), Neottialges (Caloenectes) vulturis (Kyrgyzstan, 488 Dubinin, V. B. (1956). Feather mites (Analgesoidea). Part III. Family Pterolichidae. Fauna SSSR, Paukoobraznye, Volume 6, Issue 7. Akademia Nauk SSSR, Moscow-Leningrad, Russia. Close ; Italy, 489 De Liberato, C., A. Magliano, F. Tancredi, C. Eleni, M. Posillico, and S. Mironov (2018). Neottialges (Caloenectes) vulturis (Dubinin, 1956) (Acari: Hypoderatidae) from the Eurasian griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) in Italy: first record in Europe, redescription and pathological changes in the host. Acarologia 58(2): 255–264. Close , 490 Camiña, A. (2018). A correction to De Liberato et al. 2018 Neottialges (Caloenectes) vulturis (Dubinin, 1956) (Acari: Hypoderatidae) from the Eurasian griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) in Italy. Acarologia 58(4):987–988. Close ).

Insecta Diptera Hippoboscidae: Icosta meda (Israel, 491 Theodor, O., and M. Costa (1967). A survey of the parasites of wild mammals and birds in Israel. Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Jerusalem, Israel. Close , 492 Bear, A., and A. Freidberg (1995). Contribution to the knowledge of the Ornithomyini of Israel (Diptera: Hippoboscidae). Israel Journal of Ecology and Evolution 41(2): 109–124. Close ).

Fly larvae (Insecta), have been found in the Eurasian Griffon. Myasis, parasitic infestation by Lucilia sp., has been recorded from Austria (493 Hinaidy, H. K., and H. Frey (1990). Neue Myiasis-Fälle bei Tieren in Österreich. Mitteilungen der Österreichischen Gesellschaft für Tropenmedizin und Parasitologie 12: 111–120. Close ).

Endoparasites

Trematodes: Conodiplostomum spathula (Egypt, 494 Gohar, N. (1935). Liste des trématodes parasites et de leurs hôtes vertébrés signalés dans la vallée du Nil. Annales de Parasitologie 13(1): 80–90. Close ).

Nematodes: Toxocara sp. (Croatia, 495 Kocijan, I., E. Prukner-Radovčić, R. Beck, A. Galov, A. Marinculić, and G. Sušić (2008). Microflora and internal parasites of the digestive tract of Eurasian griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus) in Croatia. European Journal of Wildlife Research 55: 71–74. Close ), Cornea leptoptera, Serratospiculum guttatum (regions adjacent to Black Sea and Caspian Sea, 496 Kurashvili, B. E., Editor (1983). Nematodes and Acanthocephalans from Birds in Areas Adjacent to the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. Metsniereba, Tbilisi. Close ), Porrocaecum angusticolle (China, 497 Liu, Q., W. Zhang, X. Shen, and G. Liu (2023). First Reported Porrocaecum angusticolle Infection in Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus) in China. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology 13. Close ).

Cestodes: Ligula intestinalis (Switzerland, 498 Mariaux, J. (2024). Checklist of the Cestoda (Platyhelminthes) of Switzerland. Revue Suisse de Zoologie 131(1):1–42. Close ), Moniezia sp. (Croatia, 495 Kocijan, I., E. Prukner-Radovčić, R. Beck, A. Galov, A. Marinculić, and G. Sušić (2008). Microflora and internal parasites of the digestive tract of Eurasian griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus) in Croatia. European Journal of Wildlife Research 55: 71–74. Close ), Mesocestoides perlatus (Azerbaijan, 499 Chertkova, A. N., and G. A. Kosupko (1978). Suborder Mesocestoidata Skrjabin, 1940. In Osnovy Tsestodologii, Volume 9 (K. M. Ryzhikov, Editor), Nauka, Moscow, Russia. pp. 118–230. Close ).

Acanthocephala: Centrorhynchus olssoni (Azerbaijan, 500 Samedov, G. A. (1972). Helminth fauna of Falconiformes in the Azerbaidzhan SSR. In Problemy parazitologii. Trudy VII Nauchnoi Konferentsii Parazitologov USSR. Part II. Izdatel’stvo Naukova Dumka, Kiev, Ukraine. Part II. pp. 216–218. Close ).

Coccidians: Isospora sp. was detected at low infection intensities (Spain, 501 Crespo-Ginés, R., D. S. López, E. Berriatua, G. Blanco, M. G. Candela, and J. M. Pérez-García (2019). Coccidian Prevalence and Intensity in Free-Ranging and Rehabilitating Wild Raptors. Ardeola 66(1): 65–76. Close ).

No hematozoan parasites were found in a sample (n = 82) of Eurasian Griffon from Spain (502 Blanco, G., A. Gajón, G. Doval, and F. Martínez (1998). Absence of blood parasites in griffon vultures from Spain. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 34(3): 640–643. Close ). In another study, however, haemosporidian parasites of the genus Leucocytozoon, lineage CIAE02, were detected in 3.1% of nestlings examined from central Spain (n = 128; 401 Chakarov, N., and G. Blanco (2021). Blood parasites in sympatric vultures: role of nesting habits and effects on body condition. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18:2431. Close ).

Direct Human Impacts

The most common sources of anthropogenic mortality were accidental trauma caused by collisions with wind turbines and power lines. Other causes of mortality included poisoning, shooting, and collisions with planes, trains, and automobiles. See Conservation and Management.

Depredation

Predation of eggs and nestling can occur. See Predation.

Exposure

Some deaths result from falling to the base of the breeding cliff, where nestlings are predated or die of starvation. In colonies located near the sea, some fledglings have been recorded falling to the sea during their first flight (85 Perco, F., S. G. Toso, G. Sušić, and M. Apollonio (1983). Initial data for a study on the status, distribution and ecology of the Griffon vulture, Gyps fulvus fulvus (Hablizl, 1783) in the Kvarner Archipelago. Larus 33–35: 99–134. Close , 409 Ruiu, D. (1983). Caro Grifone. Un naturalista tra i grifoni. Second edition. Edagricole, Bologna, Italy. Close , 185 Iezekiel, S., D. E. Bakaloudis, and C. G. Vlachos (2004). The status and conservation of Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus in Cyprus. In Raptors Worldwide. Proceedings of the 6th World Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls May 2003, Budapest, Hungary (R. D. Chancellor and B.-U. Meyburg, Editors), World Working Group on Birds of Prey and Owls and MME/BirdLife Hungary, Penti Kft. Budapest, Hungary. pp. 67–73. Close ). In addition to fledglings falling into the sea, adults have also been recorded falling into the sea, as well as getting stranded in desert habitats and later starving. See Movements and Migration.

Individual Distance

In Castellón Province (Spain), the mean distance to the nearest nest inside a colony was 72.93 m ± 99.54 SD (range 4–498 m; 398 López-López, P., C. García-Ripollés, and J. Verdejo (2004). Population status and reproductive performance of Eurasian griffons (Gyps fulvus) in eastern Spain. Journal of Raptor Research 38(4): 350–356. Close ). In Herzegovina, the mean distance between two nests was 137 m, and the minimum distance was 0.5 m (202 Marinković, S. P., L. B. Orlandić, S. B. Skorić, and B. D. Karadžić (2012). Nestsite preference of griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) in Herzegovina. Archives of Biological Sciences 64(1): 385–392. Close ). In Armenia, two pairs nested in a single cavity separated by a 3 m rock barrier (317 Adamian, M. S., and D. Klem (1999). Handbook of the Birds of Armenia. American University of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia. Close ). In Turkmenistan, the minimum distance between nearest nests was 5 m (340 Efimenko N. N. (2008). Griffon Vulture within Turkmenistan. Strepet 6(1): 93–106. Close ).

Territory Size

The area defended against conspecifics is very small and includes the nest and the area within pecking distance of the nest (272 Donázar, J. A. (1993). Los Buitres Ibéricos: Biología y Conservación. J. M. Reyero, Madrid, Spain. Close ); the defended territory can also extend to a 5 m radius around the nest (344 Xirouchakis, S. M., and M. Mylonas (2007). Breeding behaviour and parental care in the Griffon vulture Gyps fulvus on the island of Crete (Greece). Ethology Ecology & Evolution 19(1): 1–26. Close ).

Home Range Size

The size of the home range may vary due to multiple factors. In Spain, adult mean annual home-range size (95% Kernel density) was 5,027 km² ± 2,123 SD (n = 43 males and 84 females GPS-tagged). Home range size was larger in spring and summer than in autumn and winter, and females had larger home-ranges than males. Birds from northern areas of the Iberian Peninsula had smaller home-ranges than those from southern ones (503 Morant, J., E. Arrondo, J. J. Sánchez-Zapata, J. A. Donázar, A. Cortés-Avizanda, M. de la Riva, G. Blanco, F. Martínez, J. Oltra, M. Carrete, A. Margalida, P. Oliva-Vidal, J. M. Martínez, D. Serrano, and J. Pérez-García (2023). Large-scale movement patterns in a social vulture are influenced by seasonality, sex, and breeding region. Ecology and Evolution 13(2):e9817. Close ).

In Grands Causses (France), mean home range size (95% Kernel density estimation) was 962 km² ± 623 SD (n = 28), and the mean core area was 109 ± 80 km² (50% Kernel density estimate). Home range size (95% Kernel density estimate) was larger in spring (1,272 km² ± 752 SD) than in winter (473 km² ± 237 SD), and no differences in home range size were found between adults and immatures nor between males and females (280 Monsarrat, S., S. Benhamou, F. Sarrazin, C. Bessa-Gomes, W. Bouten, and O. Duriez (2013). How predictability of feeding patches affects home range and foraging habitat selection in avian social scavengers? PLOS One 8(1): e53077. Close ). Foraging ranges of 620–1,383 km² in a radius of 14.5–20.9 km from the colony have been recorded in Israel (504 Bahat, O., and A. Kaplan (1995). Foraging behaviour in Griffon vultures. Torgos 25: 18–26. Close ). Mean home range size (minimum convex polygon) in Appennino centrale (Italy) was 3,044 km² ± 1,481 SD, and was significantly larger in summer (2,623 km² ± 1,098 SD) than in winter (1,531 km² ± 1,326 SD, n = 9; 505 Altea, T., M. Panella, A. de Sanctis, P. Morini, G. Opramolla, R. Bartolo, A. Pascazi, and M. Posillico (2013). Home range e spostamenti del grifone Gyps fulvus nell’Appennino centrale. In Atti Secondo Convegno Italiano Rapaci Diurni e Notturni. Treviso, 12-13 ottobre 2012 (F. Mezzavilla and F. Scarton, Editors). Associazione Faunisti Veneti, Venice, Italy. pp. 21–45. Close ). In Teruel Province (Aragón Region, Spain), mean home range size (minimum convex polygon) of adult Eurasian Griffon was 92 km² (range of 22.9–161 km², n = 5; 506 Gil, J. A., J. L. Lagares, and M. Alcántara (2009). Seguimiento radio-telemétrico del Buitre leonado (Gyps fulvus) en el Sistema ibérico oriental (Aragón, España). Teruel 92: 137–164. Close ).

Nonbreeding Eurasian Griffon have larger home ranges than breeders. Movements (95% Kernel density estimate) of immatures and subadults (n = 8) in Austria, Italy, and Croatia covered areas of 1,411–8,589 km² and core areas (50% Kernel density estimate) of 300–1,543 km² (507 Genero, F., M. Franchini, Y. Fanin, and S. Filacorda (2020). Spatial ecology of non-breeding Eurasian Griffon Vultures Gyps fulvus in relation to natural and artificial food availability. Bird Study 67(1): 53–70. Close ). Mean home range area in summer of nonbreeding Eurasian Griffon in the Pyrenees (France) was 2,378 km² ± 969 SD (n = 20; 95% Kernel density estimation) and 213 km² ± 160 SD (n = 20; 50% kernel density estimation; 357 Fluhr, J., S. Benhamou, D. Peyrusque, and O. Duriez (2021). Space use and time budget in two populations of Griffon Vultures in contrasting landscapes. Journal of Raptor Research 55(3):425–437. Close ). Mean home range size of nonbreeding birds in eastern Spain was 4,078 km² (95% Kernel density estimate) and 489 km² (50% Kernel density estimate, n = 8; 222 García-Ripollés, C., P. López-López, and V. Urios (2011). Ranging behaviour of non-breeding Eurasian Griffon Vultures Gyps fulvus: a GPS-telemetry study. Acta Ornithologica 46(2): 127–34. Close ). In Bulgaria, mean home range (95% Kernel density estimate) of immatures was 7,893 km² ± 20,645 SD and mean core area (50% Kernel density estimate) was 772 km² ± 1,826 SD (n = 12; 223 Peshev, H., E. Stoynov, D. Parvanov, and A. Grozdanov (2018). Seasonal and Spatial Dynamics of the Population of the Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus (Hablizl, 1783) (Aves: Accipitridae) in Southwestern Bulgaria. Acta Zoologica Bulgarica 12: 67–75. Close ). Wintering home range size of a migrant juvenile in Sudan and South Sudan was 14,300 km² (95% Kernel density estimate) and the core area (50% Kernel density estimation) was 2,350 km² (140 Arkumarev, V., D. Dobrev, and A. Stamenov (2019). First record of Eurasian Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus from the Balkans migrating to South Sudan revealed by GPS tracking. Scopus 39(2): 27–35. Close ).

Home range size of a migrant Eurasian Griffon wintering in India was 6,794 km² (95% utilization distribution), and the core area was 1,199 km² (50% utilization distribution), whereas its summer home range size in Kazakhstan was 53,684 km² (95% utilization distribution), with a core area of 16,228 km² (50% utilization distribution; 145 Ram, M., A. Sahu, S. Tikadar, D. Gadhavi, T. A. Rather, L. Jhala, and Y. Zala (2022). Home range, movement and activity patterns of six vulture species using satellite telemetry in Saurashtra Landscape, Gujarat, India. Ecologies 3:492–507. Close ).

The Eurasian Griffon can occupy smaller ranges when older; however, available data are scarce. A GPS-tracked male in Israel moved on average 11 km ± 17 SD between consecutive night roosts in his first year of life while in his eighth year of life only moved on average 5 km ± 10 SD (508 Acácio, M., N. Anglister, G. Vaadia, R. Harel, R. Nathan, O. Hatzofe, and O. Spiegel (2023). A lifetime track of a griffon vulture: The moving story of Rehovot (Y64). Ecology 104(4):e3985. Close ).

Numbers

Global population size has been estimated at 648,000–688,000 mature individuals (509 BirdLife International (2017). European Birds of Conservation Concern: Populations, Trends and National Responsibilities. BirdLife International, Cambridge, United Kingdom. Close ). This estimate is extrapolated from counts of the European population, which occupies approximately 10% of the total distribution of ​​the species. However, there are no accurate censuses of populations in the Middle East and Asia, so numbers could be much lower.

In counts from Europe, there were 30,946 pairs in Spain in 2018, including 16 pairs in Mallorca Island (Balearic Islands, Spain; 87 Camiña, A., J. Mayol, and J. Muntaner (2015). El buitre leonado, Gyps fulvus, en islas del Mediterráneo: colonización y asentamiento en las Islas Baleares. In Llibre Verd de Protecció d’Espècies a les Balears (Govern de les Illes Balears, Editors), Monografies de la Societat d’Història Natural de les Balears, Illes Balears, Spain. pp. 255–262. Close , 368 Del Moral, J. C., and B. Molina, Editors (2018). El buitre leonado en España, población reproductora en 2018 y método de censo. Programas de seguimiento de avifauna de SEO/BirdLife, 50, SEO/BirdLife, Madrid, Spain. Close ). Other Eurasian and North African populations include 1,124–1,210 pairs in Portugal (510 Terraube, J., J. Andevski, F. Loercher, and J. Tavares (2022). Population Estimates for the Five European Vulture Species across the Mediterranean: 2022 update. The Vulture Conservation Foundation, Arnhem, Netherlands. Close ); 2,848 pairs in France (510 Terraube, J., J. Andevski, F. Loercher, and J. Tavares (2022). Population Estimates for the Five European Vulture Species across the Mediterranean: 2022 update. The Vulture Conservation Foundation, Arnhem, Netherlands. Close ); 270–290 pairs in Italy (510 Terraube, J., J. Andevski, F. Loercher, and J. Tavares (2022). Population Estimates for the Five European Vulture Species across the Mediterranean: 2022 update. The Vulture Conservation Foundation, Arnhem, Netherlands. Close ); 1–4 breeding pairs in Austria (511 Eliotout, B. (2007). Le vautour fauve. Delachaux & Niestlé, Paris, France. Close ); 230–233 pairs in Serbia (510 Terraube, J., J. Andevski, F. Loercher, and J. Tavares (2022). Population Estimates for the Five European Vulture Species across the Mediterranean: 2022 update. The Vulture Conservation Foundation, Arnhem, Netherlands. Close ); 163 pairs in Bulgaria (510 Terraube, J., J. Andevski, F. Loercher, and J. Tavares (2022). Population Estimates for the Five European Vulture Species across the Mediterranean: 2022 update. The Vulture Conservation Foundation, Arnhem, Netherlands. Close ); 7 pairs in North Macedonia (510 Terraube, J., J. Andevski, F. Loercher, and J. Tavares (2022). Population Estimates for the Five European Vulture Species across the Mediterranean: 2022 update. The Vulture Conservation Foundation, Arnhem, Netherlands. Close ); 121 pairs in Croatia (510 Terraube, J., J. Andevski, F. Loercher, and J. Tavares (2022). Population Estimates for the Five European Vulture Species across the Mediterranean: 2022 update. The Vulture Conservation Foundation, Arnhem, Netherlands. Close ); 15–26 pairs in mainland Greece, 14 pairs in the Aegean islands of Greece, and 250–340 pairs in Crete (192 Dobrev, D., R. Tsiakiris, T. Skartsi, V. Dobrev, V. Arkumarev, K. Stara, A. Stamenov, N. Probonas, T. Kominos, A. Galanaki, E. Kret, B. Hallmann, B. Grubac, G. Susic, S. Marinkovic, I. Hribsek, I., S. Skoric, H. Jerrentrup, V. Lucic, S. Kapelj, G. Stoyanov, S. Zakkak, H. Hristov, S. Stoychev, L. Sidiropoulos, T. Bino, and D. Demerdzhiev (2021). Long-term size and range changes of the Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus population in the Balkans: a review. Bird Conservation International Close ); 3–4 pairs in Cyprus (185 Iezekiel, S., D. E. Bakaloudis, and C. G. Vlachos (2004). The status and conservation of Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus in Cyprus. In Raptors Worldwide. Proceedings of the 6th World Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls May 2003, Budapest, Hungary (R. D. Chancellor and B.-U. Meyburg, Editors), World Working Group on Birds of Prey and Owls and MME/BirdLife Hungary, Penti Kft. Budapest, Hungary. pp. 67–73. Close , 510 Terraube, J., J. Andevski, F. Loercher, and J. Tavares (2022). Population Estimates for the Five European Vulture Species across the Mediterranean: 2022 update. The Vulture Conservation Foundation, Arnhem, Netherlands. Close ); 2 pairs in Morocco (510 Terraube, J., J. Andevski, F. Loercher, and J. Tavares (2022). Population Estimates for the Five European Vulture Species across the Mediterranean: 2022 update. The Vulture Conservation Foundation, Arnhem, Netherlands. Close ); 115–186 pairs in Algeria (104 Isenmann, P., and A. Moali (2000). Oiseaux d’Algérie. Birds of Algeria. Société d’Études Ornithologiques de France, Paris, France. (In French and English.) Close ); 70–75 pairs in Georgia (117 Katzner, T., A. Gavashelishvili, S. Sklyarenko, M. McGrady, J. Shergalin, and K. Bildstein (2004). Population and conservation status of griffon vultures in the former Soviet Union. In Raptors Worldwide ( R. D. Chancellor and B. U. Meyburg, Editors). WWGBP/MME. pp. 235–240. Close ); 61 pairs in Azerbaijan (195 Karimov, T., and A. Mammadov (2019). The status of vultures Neophron percnopterus, Gypaetus barbatus, Gyps fulvus, Aegypius monachus (Accipitriformes) in Azerbaijan. Ukrainian Journal of Ecology 9(4):565–570. Close ); 48–54 pairs in Armenia (512 Aghababyan, K., G. Khanamirian, and V. Gevorgyan (2019). The state of Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus) in Armenia. Tichodroma 31: 11–18. Close ); 20–25 pairs in Ukraine (180 Tsvelykh, A. N., B. A. Appak, M. M. Beskaravainy, S. Yu. Kostin, and M. A. Osipova (2018). Vultures of the Ukrainian Fauna. Frankfurt Zoological Society and Institut zoologii Natsional'noy akademii nauk Ukrainy. Ukrainskogo Fitosotsiologicheskogo Tsentra Nauchnoye izdaniye 188, Kiev. Close ); 150–200 pairs in Türkiye (509 BirdLife International (2017). European Birds of Conservation Concern: Populations, Trends and National Responsibilities. BirdLife International, Cambridge, United Kingdom. Close ); 400–500 pairs in northern Caucasus (Russia) (196 Belik, V. P., V. A. Telpov, Y. E. Komarov, and R. K. Pshegusov (2019). Belogolovyy sip Gyps fulvus na Tsentral'nom Kavkaze. Russkiy Ornitologicheskiy Zhurnal 28, Ekspress-vypusk 1777: 2535–2539. Close ); 48 pairs in Israel (510 Terraube, J., J. Andevski, F. Loercher, and J. Tavares (2022). Population Estimates for the Five European Vulture Species across the Mediterranean: 2022 update. The Vulture Conservation Foundation, Arnhem, Netherlands. Close ); 12–30 pairs in Jordan (513 Slotta-Bachmayr, L., R. Bögel, and A. Camiña Cardenal (2005). The Eurasian Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus) in Europe and the Mediterranean. EGVWG, Salzburg, Austria. Close ); 100–200 pairs in Syria (105 Baumgart, W. (1995). Die Vögel Syriens: eine Übersicht. Max Kasparek Verlag, Heidelberg, Germany. Close ); 2,000 pairs in Yemen (112 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission & Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia & Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ); 3,000 pairs in Saudi Arabia (112 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission & Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia & Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ); 400–600 birds in Uzbekistan (117 Katzner, T., A. Gavashelishvili, S. Sklyarenko, M. McGrady, J. Shergalin, and K. Bildstein (2004). Population and conservation status of griffon vultures in the former Soviet Union. In Raptors Worldwide ( R. D. Chancellor and B. U. Meyburg, Editors). WWGBP/MME. pp. 235–240. Close ); 52–65 pairs in Turkmenistan (340 Efimenko N. N. (2008). Griffon Vulture within Turkmenistan. Strepet 6(1): 93–106. Close ); 80–150 pairs in Kazakhstan (514 Sklyarenko, S. L., and T. Katzner (2012). The status of populations of vultures in Kazakhstan. Ornithological News of Kazakhstan and Middle Asia 1:178–185. Close ); and 100–300 birds in southeastern Tibet (84 MaMing, R., and G. Xu (2015). Status and threats to vultures in China. Vulture News 68:3–24. Close ). Estimates of the Eurasian Griffon in most countries of the Middle East and Asia are of low quality; standardized protocols are needed for large-scale monitoring. Genetic analysis of shed feathers, baited cameras, visual surveys, and mark-resight could also be used (515 Perrig, P. L., S. A. Lambertucci, E. Donadio, J. Padró, and J. N. Pauli (2019). Monitoring vultures in the 21st century: The need for standardized protocols. Journal of Applied Ecology 56: 796–801. Close ).

Trends

The Eurasian Griffon declined throughout the 1900s in Europe, the Middle East, and northern Africa (9 Glutz von Blotzheim, N., K. M. Bauer, and E. Bezzel (1971). Handbuch der Vögel Mitteleuropas. Band 4. Falconiformes. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close , 3 Cramp, S., and K. E. L. Simmons, Editors (1980). Handbook of the Birds of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa: The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume II: Hawks to Bustards. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). The decline continued in some countries through the early 2000s. For example, in Cyprus, there were 18 pairs in 1993 and 8 pairs in 2002 (185 Iezekiel, S., D. E. Bakaloudis, and C. G. Vlachos (2004). The status and conservation of Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus in Cyprus. In Raptors Worldwide. Proceedings of the 6th World Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls May 2003, Budapest, Hungary (R. D. Chancellor and B.-U. Meyburg, Editors), World Working Group on Birds of Prey and Owls and MME/BirdLife Hungary, Penti Kft. Budapest, Hungary. pp. 67–73. Close ), while on the mainland of Greece, in the 1980s its population suffered a collapse during which 13–15 colonies were abandoned and a reduction of at least 60% in its distribution was detected (516 Xirouchakis, S. M., and R. Tsiakiris (2009). Situación y tendencias poblacionales de los buitres en Grecia. Munibe. Suplemento 29:160–171. Close ). In Azerbaijan, the number of pairs declined 14.1% between 2004 and 2016 (195 Karimov, T., and A. Mammadov (2019). The status of vultures Neophron percnopterus, Gypaetus barbatus, Gyps fulvus, Aegypius monachus (Accipitriformes) in Azerbaijan. Ukrainian Journal of Ecology 9(4):565–570. Close ). The population trend of breeding colonies of the Western Caucasus (Russia) changed during the period from 1986 to 2007 from steadily positive to negative, until no birds were nesting in some colonies (517 Tilba, P. A., and R. A. Mnatsekanov (2019). Dinamika populyatsionnykh trendov belogolovogo sipa Gyps fulvus na Zapadnom Kavkaze. Russkiy Ornitologicheskiy Zhurnal 28, Ekspress-vypusk 1775: 2454–2455. Close ). In France, it went extinct during early 1900s in the Mediterranean Alps, and in the 1940s in the south of Massif Central (518 Sarrazin, F. (2013). Vulture tracking techniques and movement ecology. In Proceedings of the Griffon Vulture Conference 6-8 March 2013, Limassol, Cyprus (BirdLife Cyprus, Editor), BirdLife Cyprus. pp. 27–35. Close ); it was later reintroduced successfully to both areas since 1981 (182 Terrasse, M. (2006). Long term reintroduction projects of Griffon Gyps fulvus and Black Vultures Aegypius monachus in France. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Conservation and Management of Vulture Populations. 14–16 November 2005, Thessaloniki, Greece (D. C. Houston and S. E. Piper, Editors), Natural History Museum of Crete and WWF Greece, Athens, Greece. pp. 98–107. Close ). In Kabylie region (Algeria), there were 42 pairs in 1992 but only 11 pairs in 2018–2019 (519 Moali, A. and B. Gaci (1992). Les rapaces diurnes nicheurs en Kabylie (Algérie). Alauda 60(3):164–169. Close , 520 Hachour, K., N. Talmat-Chaouchi, and R. Moulaï (2021). Status and distribution of diurnal raptors in Central North Algeria, the case of Great Kabylia. Arxius de Miscel·lània Zoològica 19:261–272. Close ).

In the Central Kopet Dag Mountains (Turkmenistan), from 1983–1989, there were 30 pairs, which decreased to 13–17 pairs from 2007–2008, 6–7 pairs in 2014, until finally the colonies were extirpated. Poaching of wild ungulates, including wild goat (Capra aegagrus) and urial (Ovis orientalis), and their predators, leopard (Panthera pardus) and striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena), disrupted the balance of predator, prey, and scavenger relationships over a very short period of time (321 Efimenko, H. H. (2019). Belogolovyy sip Gyps fulvus – ischezayushchiy vid Tsentral'nogo Kopetdaga (Turkmenistan). Russkiy Ornitologicheskiy Zhurnal 28, Ekspress-vypusk 1723: 360–363. Close ). In one colony in Tanumah, 120 km north of Abha (southwestern Saudi Arabia), there were 45 active nests in December 1999 and only 25 in January 2001 (265 Shobrak, M. (2003). Vultures in Saudi Arabia. Vulture News 48:20–23. Close ).

Surveys in southeastern Kazakhstan between August 2000–2002 showed that populations of the Eurasian Griffon and Himalayan Griffon (Gyps himalayensis) at Usek appeared to be about 25% of what they were 10 years before; the number of nests at Chilik were 50% of that recorded 10 years before. At Chilik, the Himalayan Griffon represented 50% of the population and the other 50% were Eurasian Griffon, while ten years before 100% were Himalayan Griffon (521 Katzner, T., and S. Sklyarenko (2002). Conservation status of Griffon and other vultures in central Asia. In Reports from the workshop: Conservation of Gyps vultures in Asia (T. Katzner and J. Parry-Jones Mbe, Editors), 3ed North American Ornithological Conference 24-28 September 2002. pp. 14–17. Close ). In the Karatau Mountains (Kazakhstan), a 95% decline in the Eurasian Griffon population was recorded, with 75 active nests in 2010 and four in 2022 (522 Kaptyonkina, A. G., G. I. Pulikova, N. Kh. Ongarbayev, and I. V. Karyakin (2023). Catastrophic Decline in the Griffon Vulture Population in the Karatau Mountains, Kazakhstan. Raptors Conservation 46:11–33. Close ).

While Eurasian Griffon populations have declined in most areas, they have experienced growth in others. In Bulgaria, for example, it survived in the Eastern Rhodopes mountains in the 1970s, and during the period from 1987–2011, it actually increased from 10 pairs in two colonies to 56 pairs in seven colonies (434 Demerdzhiev, D., H. Hristov, D. Dobrev, I. Angelov, and M. Kurtev (2014). Long-term Population Status, Breeding Parameters and Limiting Factors of the Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus Hablizl, 1783) Population in the Eastern Rhodopes, Bulgaria. Acta Zoologica Bulgarica 66(3): 373–384. Close ). In Serbia, the population increased from 14 pairs in two colonies in 1992 to 262 pairs in four colonies in 2018 (436 Marinković, S., I. Hribšek, N. Tatalović, and S. Skorić (2020). A long-term population study of the Eurasian griffon (Gyps fulvus) in Serbia before and following the establishment of a supplementary feeding program. Ethology Ecology & Evolution 33(2): 137–155. Close ). In Crimea (Ukraine), the number of pairs increased from 12–14 pairs in 2003 to 20–25 in 2007 (180 Tsvelykh, A. N., B. A. Appak, M. M. Beskaravainy, S. Yu. Kostin, and M. A. Osipova (2018). Vultures of the Ukrainian Fauna. Frankfurt Zoological Society and Institut zoologii Natsional'noy akademii nauk Ukrainy. Ukrainskogo Fitosotsiologicheskogo Tsentra Nauchnoye izdaniye 188, Kiev. Close ). In Israel, it has seen growth and decline; there were about 1,000 pairs up through the 1950s, which declined to about 80 pairs in the early 1980s, increased again to 150 pairs later in the 1980s, and subsequently declined again by about 50% in the 1990s (108 Shirihai, H. (1996). The Birds of Israel: A Complete Avifauna and Bird Atlas of Israel. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ). The decline continued in Israel between 1999 and 2013 (523 Choresh, Y., D. Burg, T. Trop, I. Izhaki, and D. Malkinson (2018). Long‐term griffon vulture population dynamics at Gamla Nature Reserve. The Journal of Wildlife Management 83(1):135–144. Close ).

There has also been a substantial increase in Eurasian Griffon populations in Spain in many regions. For example, in the Navarra Region and northern Zaragoza Province (Aragón Region) between 1979 and 1984, the number of colonies increased from 29 to 39, with a annual population increase of 8.7% (524 Donázar, J. A. (1987). Apparent Increase in a Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus Population in Spain. Journal of Raptor Research 21(2): 75–77. Close ). National censuses also showed a positive growth in Spain, where 2,283 pairs were counted in 1979 (197 Sociedad Española de Ornitología (1981). Primer censo de buitreras (1979). Ardeola 26–27: 165–312. Close ), 7,529–8,074 pairs in 1989 (419 Arroyo, B., E. Ferreiro, and V. Garza (1990). II Censo Nacional de Buitre Leonado (Gyps fulvus): Población, Distribución, Demografía y Conservación. ICONA, Madrid, Spain. Close ), 17,337 pairs in 1999 (525 Del Moral, J. C., and R. Martí (2001). El buitre leonado en la Península Ibérica. III Censo Nacional y I Censo Ibérico coordinado, 1999. Monografía 7. Sociedad Española de Ornitología, Madrid, Spain. Close ), 24,609 in 2008 (526 del Moral, J. C., Editor (2009). El buitre leonado en España. Población reproductora en 2008 y método de censo. SEO/BirdLife, Madrid, Spain. Close ), and 30,946 in 2018 (368 Del Moral, J. C., and B. Molina, Editors (2018). El buitre leonado en España, población reproductora en 2018 y método de censo. Programas de seguimiento de avifauna de SEO/BirdLife, 50, SEO/BirdLife, Madrid, Spain. Close ).

There are several factors that may be responsible for regulating Eurasian Griffon populations. One may be density-dependent regulation: in Navarra Region (Spain), the number of breeding pairs increased from 221 in 1969–1975 to 1,395 in 1994, but the annual population growth rate decreased in the last five years. The increase in the regional density produced a decrease in the productivity, suggesting that density‐dependent regulation of breeding success operates through interference (427 Fernández, C., P. Azkona, and J. A. Donázar (2008). Density-dependent effects on productivity in the griffon vulture Gyps fulvus: the role of interference and habitat heterogeneity. Ibis 140(1): 64–69. Close ). In addition to dynamics in Navarra Region, throughout Spain, the increase in the number of pairs from the 1990s to 2018 was correlated with a decline of productivity (368 Del Moral, J. C., and B. Molina, Editors (2018). El buitre leonado en España, población reproductora en 2018 y método de censo. Programas de seguimiento de avifauna de SEO/BirdLife, 50, SEO/BirdLife, Madrid, Spain. Close ), suggesting that density-dependent regulation was operating.

In the breeding colony of Hoces del río Riaza Natural Park (Segovia Province, Spain), the population expanded and the number of mixed-age pairs and sub-adult pairs increased between 1978–2001. During this period, 83% of temporal variance in breeding population size was explained by adult survival variation, followed by fecundity (10.6%; 527 Almaraz, P., F. Martínez, Z. Morales-Reyes, J. A. Sánchez-Zapata, and G. Blanco (2022). Long-term demographic dynamics of a keystone scavenger disrupted by human-induced shifts in food availability. Ecological Applications 32(6): e2579. Close ).