Conservation and Management

Least Concern (528 BirdLife International (2017). Gyps fulvus (amended version of 2016 assessment). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017:e.T22695219A118593677. Close ). Previously considered Least Concern (2004–2016), and Lower Risk/least concern (1988–2000). See Population Status for more details on population estimates and trends.

The Eurasian Griffon is protected in the 27 countries of the European Union by the Birds Directive of 2009. This directive required that member states classify Special Protection Areas for species, including the Eurasian Griffon, that are listed on Annex I (529 Papazoglou, C. (2013). Legal Measures to protect vultures in Europe. In Proceedings of the Griffon Vulture Conference 6-8 March 2013, Limassol, Cyprus (BirdLife Cyprus, Editor), BirdLife Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus. pp. 88–95. Close ). Other legal instruments that protect the Eurasian Griffon include the Bern Convention, Bonn Convention, and CITES Convention. However, threats to the species remain across its range, mainly due to habitat change, poisoning, collision with wind turbines and power lines, electrocution, and illegal killing.

A prioritization model analysis suggested that areas important for Old World vulture conservation were concentrated in southern and eastern Africa, South Asia, and the Iberian Peninsula, and over 80% of these areas were unprotected (530 Santangeli, A., M. Girardello, E. Buechley, A. Botha, E. Di Minin, and A. Moilanen (2019). Priority areas for conservation of Old World vultures. Conservation Biology 33(5): 1056–1065. Close ). However, in the case of the Eurasian Griffon, parts of the Middle East, and northern and western Africa were not included in the analysis. Local conservation priorities should not only use large-scaled generalized models but also available local data (531 Efrat, R., O. Hatzofe, and O. Berger-Tal (2020). Translating large-scale prioritization models for vultures to local-scale decision making. Conservation Biology 34(5): 1305–1307. Close ). In some Asian countries such as Kazakhstan, the Eurasian Griffon is not legally protected (522 Kaptyonkina, A. G., G. I. Pulikova, N. Kh. Ongarbayev, and I. V. Karyakin (2023). Catastrophic Decline in the Griffon Vulture Population in the Karatau Mountains, Kazakhstan. Raptors Conservation 46:11–33. Close ).

Habitat Loss and Degradation

The Eurasian Griffon depends on the existence of wide open areas in which to forage for ungulate carrion. Nowadays, the areas where it can feed on wild ungulates are very scarce or non-existent throughout its range, and it mainly depends on domestic ungulates (but see 532 Margalida, A., M. A. Colomer, and D. Sanuy (2011). Can Wild Ungulate Carcasses Provide Enough Biomass to Maintain Avian Scavenger Populations? An Empirical Assessment Using a Bio-Inspired Computational Model. PLoS ONE 6(5):e20248. Close ). Factors that have reduced available habitat include the intensification of agriculture and the increase in forest plantations. The abandonment of the countryside by rural populations has also reduced extensive livestock farming, which had allowed the Eurasian Griffon to survive (513 Slotta-Bachmayr, L., R. Bögel, and A. Camiña Cardenal (2005). The Eurasian Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus) in Europe and the Mediterranean. EGVWG, Salzburg, Austria. Close ). Farmland abandonment and subsequent vegetation encroachment, as observed in the Spanish Pyrenees during the mid-1900s, has reduced the extent of open spaces and, consequently, foraging areas for the Eurasian Griffon (294 Oliva-Vidal, P., E. Sebastián-González, and A. Margalida (2022). Scavenging in changing environments: woody encroachment shapes rural scavenger assemblages in Europe. Oikos e09310 Close ). The transformation of rain-fed areas into irrigated areas undertaken between 2005 and 2020 in Mediterranean areas of Navarra Region (Spain) led to a decrease in the presence of the Eurasian Griffon (533 Villanúa, D., X. Cabodevilla, J. Ardaiz, A. Lizarraga, and A. Zufiaurre (2023). Effect of implementation of irrigation on raptor and corvid populations in a Mediterranean agrosystem. Animal Biodiversity and Conservation 46(2):155–163. Close ).

In the late 1990s, the emergence of bovine spongiform encephalopathy raised additional concerns for Eurasian Griffon conservation. To control this disease, the European Union enacted strict regulations regarding deaths of livestock, including the prohibition of leaving dead animals (including all bovine, ovine, and caprine species) or any parts of a carcass in the field or at supplemental feeding sites. In some areas, this led to an 80% decrease in carcasses that the Eurasian Griffon could exploit (534 Margalida, A., D. Campión, and J. A. Donázar (2014). Vultures vs livestock: conservation relationships in an emerging conflict between humans and wildlife. Oryx 48(2): 172–176. Close ). A preliminary study did not find significant differences in breeding success before and after the disease in colonies of three Spanish regions (Navarra, La Rioja, and Castilla y León; 535 Camiña, A. (2004). Consequences of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) on breeding success and food availability in Spanish Vulture populations. In Raptors Worldwide. Proceedings of the 6th World Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls May 2003, Budapest, Hungary (R. D. Chancellor and B. U. Meyburg, Editors), World Working Group on Birds of Prey and Owls and MME/BirdLife Hungary. Penti Kft. Budapest, Hungary. pp. 27–44. Close ). However, a long-term study in the breeding colony of Hoces del río Riaza Natural Park (Segovia, Spain) showed that during a bovine spongiform encephalopathy outbreak (2001–2003), subadults ceased to participate in reproduction and the mean laying date was delayed by one month; during the period of prohibition of abandonment of livestock carcasses in the wild (2004–2011), the number of fledglings decreased (527 Almaraz, P., F. Martínez, Z. Morales-Reyes, J. A. Sánchez-Zapata, and G. Blanco (2022). Long-term demographic dynamics of a keystone scavenger disrupted by human-induced shifts in food availability. Ecological Applications 32(6): e2579. Close ).

Coinciding with the increase in Eurasian Griffon populations and the decrease in available carrion as a result of bovine spongiform encephalopathy restrictions, there has also been an increase in cases of alleged attacks and deaths of livestock by Eurasian Griffon, mostly (60%) during spring and partially (36%) associated with birthing (536 Margalida, A., and D. Campión (2009). Interacciones agresivas entre buitres leonados Gyps fulvus y ganado: aspectos ecológicos y económicos de un conflicto emergente. Munibe Suplemento - Gehigarria 29: 476–491. Close , 534 Margalida, A., D. Campión, and J. A. Donázar (2014). Vultures vs livestock: conservation relationships in an emerging conflict between humans and wildlife. Oryx 48(2): 172–176. Close ). In Cataluña Region (Spain), most farmer complaints of conflict between the Eurasian Griffon and livestock occurred during the birthing season and was positively associated with extensive livestock density (537 Oliva-Vidal, P., A. Hernández-Matías, D. García, M. A. Colomer, J. Real, and A. Margalida (2022). Griffon vultures, livestock and farmers: unraveling a complex socio-economic ecological conflict from a conservation perspective. Biological Conservation 272:109664. Close ). In the Grands Causses (France), 15 cases of Eurasian Griffon attacks on living animals were documented over eight years, though the Eurasian Griffon was never the primary cause of death in any of these cases (538 Duriez, O., S. Descaves, R. Gallais, R. Neouze, J. Fluhr, and F. Decante (2019). Vultures attacking livestock: a problem of vulture behavioural change or farmers’ perception? Bird Conservation International 29:437–453. Close ). An analysis of 104 cases of damage to livestock attributed to Eurasian Griffon during 2007 in the Parc National des Pyrénées (France) indicated that in 10 cases, the Eurasian Griffon was found to be the primary cause of death of an otherwise healthy animal, of which six were adult sheep, two lambs several months of age, and two calves 1–2 d of age; in another 29 cases, the intervention of Eurasian Griffon aggravated the animal's state of weakness (539 Labouyrie, A. M. (2007). Analyse methodologique des domages attribués aus vautours fauves dans les troupeaux Pyrénéens. Ph.D. thesis, Université Paul-Sabatier, Toulouse, France. Close ). Between 1996 and 2010, there were 1,793 reported cases of Eurasian Griffon attacks on livestock in northeastern Spain, but on average, 69% of the complaints presented each year were not substantiated, as it was unclear whether the animal was actually alive before the Eurasian Griffon found it (534 Margalida, A., D. Campión, and J. A. Donázar (2014). Vultures vs livestock: conservation relationships in an emerging conflict between humans and wildlife. Oryx 48(2): 172–176. Close ). A study carried out in central Spain during 2020–2021 supported livestock predation by Eurasian Griffon. Of a total of 41 suspected cases of predation, it was verified through histological analysis in 25 cases that 16% had ante-mortem lesions due to vulture attacks (540 Rebollada-Merino, A., A. Gómez-Buendía, L. Domínguez, and A. Rodríguez-Bertos (2024). Forensic investigations of suspected livestock depredation by vultures: scientific tools for compensation programmes. Journal of Comparative Pathology 209:22–30. Close ). It has been hypothesized that these attacks represent a recent change in Eurasian Griffon feeding behavior, but the analysis of 156 complaint reports recorded between 2007–2014 in Grands Causses (France) suggested a perception bias of farmers due to lack of knowledge about the birds (538 Duriez, O., S. Descaves, R. Gallais, R. Neouze, J. Fluhr, and F. Decante (2019). Vultures attacking livestock: a problem of vulture behavioural change or farmers’ perception? Bird Conservation International 29:437–453. Close ). The presumed attacks by Eurasian Griffon on livestock need both ecological and socio-economic approaches (541 Margalida, A., and J. A. Donázar (2020). Fake news and vultures. Nature Sustainability 3: 492–493. Close ).

Climate change may also affect the distribution of the Eurasian Griffon. A simulation model that estimated the extent of the distribution between 2070–2099 in Europe with good fit found the potential future distribution contracted in the south, especially in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balkans (542 Huntley, B., R. E. Green, Y. C. Collingham, and S. G. Willis (2007). A Climatic Atlas of European Breeding Birds. Durham University, Royal Society for the Protection of Birds & Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ). Bioclimatic models were also developed using meteorological temperature and precipitation data obtained from Spain during the period 1961–1990. Under climate scenarios available for the 2000s, the models projected contractions in the current potential distribution in the Iberian Peninsula of 76–80% between 2041–2070 (543 Araújo, M. B., F. Guilhaumon, D. Rodrigues Neto, I. Pozo Ortego, and R. Gómez Calmaestra (2011). Impactos, vulnerabilidad y adaptación de la biodiversidad española frente al cambio climático. 2. Fauna de vertebrados. Dirección general de medio Natural y Política Forestal. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Medio Rural y Marino, Madrid, Spain. Close ).

Effects of Invasive Species

The introduction by hunters of wild boar (Sus scrofa) in Cres Island (Croatia) had an indirect negative impact on the Eurasian Griffon. Illegal poisoning was used to control damages on lamb and sheep caused by wild boar, and as a result, birds were also poisoned (544 Sušić, G., V. Radek, N. Novak, and V. Lodeta (2009). Eradication of Invasive Alien Species on the Island of Cres, Croatia. In Book of abstracts of the World Conference on Biological Invasions and Ecosystem Functioning (R. A. Mould, Editor). Academic Press, Porto, Portugal. pp. 123. Close ). In Jodhpur, India, migrant Eurasian Griffon have been killed by feral dogs at feeding sites (212 Chhangani, A. K., and S. M. Mohnot (2008). Demography of migratory vultures in and around Jodhpur, India. Vulture News 58: 23–34. Close ).

Hunting and Trapping

In 1953, the Provincial Boards for the Extinction of Harmful Animals and Protection of Hunting was created in Spain, and continued until 1970. Between 1953 and 1961, a total of 968 Eurasian Griffon were officially killed and rewards were given in six provinces of Spain (545 Servicio Nacional de Pesca Fluvial y Caza (1962). Control de animales dañinos Información estadística. Años 1953-1961. Servicio Nacional de Pesca Fluvial y Caza, Madrid, Spain. Close ). Illegal shooting has also continued in Spain, though the number of birds shot is low. In Castilla y León Region (Spain), 11 Eurasian Griffon with gunshot wounds were received at rehabilitation centers between 1989–2016 (546 Balmori, A. (2019). Endangered bird mortality by gunshots: still a current problem. Biodiversity and Conservation 28:2555–2564. Close ).

In Eastern Rhodopes (Bulgaria), 15.79% of Eurasian Griffon found dead from 1979–2011 were shot (n = 38; 434 Demerdzhiev, D., H. Hristov, D. Dobrev, I. Angelov, and M. Kurtev (2014). Long-term Population Status, Breeding Parameters and Limiting Factors of the Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus Hablizl, 1783) Population in the Eastern Rhodopes, Bulgaria. Acta Zoologica Bulgarica 66(3): 373–384. Close ). Shooting was the cause of 5.9% of mortality events in Cyprus (n = 51; 185 Iezekiel, S., D. E. Bakaloudis, and C. G. Vlachos (2004). The status and conservation of Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus in Cyprus. In Raptors Worldwide. Proceedings of the 6th World Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls May 2003, Budapest, Hungary (R. D. Chancellor and B.-U. Meyburg, Editors), World Working Group on Birds of Prey and Owls and MME/BirdLife Hungary, Penti Kft. Budapest, Hungary. pp. 67–73. Close ). Between 2001–2012, 10 Eurasian Griffon were shot in Israel (547 Hatzofe, O. (2013). Working with vultures in Israel: Conservation, mortality factors, survival, PVA model of the Griffon vultures in Israel & the Middle East. In Proceedings of the Griffon Vulture Conference 6-8 March 2013, Limassol, Cyprus (BirdLife Cyprus, Editor), BirdLife Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus. pp. 36–37. Close ). In Karachay-Cherkessia (Caucasus, Russia), a single bird was shot between 1997–2000 (548 Akbayev, I. M. (2014). Belogolovyy sip Gyps fulvus v Karachayevo-Cherkesii. Russkiy Ornitologicheskiy Zhurnal 23, Ekspress-vypusk 1041: 2704–2705. Close ). In Armenia, Eurasian Griffon that were shot have recently been recovered at markets being sold as trophies, and an illegal pet trade of Eurasian Griffon for use in outdoor exhibitions has also been reported (512 Aghababyan, K., G. Khanamirian, and V. Gevorgyan (2019). The state of Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus) in Armenia. Tichodroma 31: 11–18. Close ). Trapped birds were also found at the resort parks of the Kav-Minvodsk (Kislovodsk, Essentuki, and Pyatigorsk), in Stavropol Region, Russia, where they were kept by photographers and used for commercial purposes (549 Ilyukh, M. P. (2017). Belogolovyy sip Gyps fulvus i chornyy grif Aegypius monachus na Stavropolye. Russkiy Ornitologicheskiy Zhurnal 26, Ekspress-vypusk 1388:3–9. Close ).

In multiple Middle Eastern countries, migrant birds of prey are captured and offered for sale in local markets. During a survey in the Kuwait bird market on weekends between 1 January and 30 May 2010, 1,301 individual birds of prey of 17 species were counted, including three Eurasian Griffon (550 Al-Sirhan, A., and O. Al-Bathali (2011). The wild bird trade in the Kuwait bird market. Sandgrouse 33:63–65. Close ). During another survey carried out between September and December 2011 at animal markets in the Tabuk region (Saudi Arabia), 7,480 vertebrates were available for sale, including one Eurasian Griffon (551 Aloufi, A., and E. Eid (2014). Conservation perspectives of illegal animal trade at markets in Tabuk, Saudi Arabia. Traffic Bulletin 26(2):77–80. Close ). From February to July 2022, 35 birds of prey of 11 species, including Eurasian Griffon, were available for sale at the bird-markets of Suq Al-Jeneaze, Suq-Haraj, and Suq Al-Manacha (Al-Qadissiya Province, Iraq; 552 Abou Turab, M. K., H. K. Abdul-Zahra, S. A. Abed, and M. A. Salim (2024). Survey on some captured raptors with remarkable observations on honey buzzard Pernis apivorus (Linnaeus, 1758) from some Iraqi bird-markets: A case study from Qadissiya Governorate, Southern Iraq. Caspian Journal of Environmental Sciences Close ).

In addition to illegal shooting and trapping, an arrest in Bulgaria was made for illegally collecting eggs of both Eurasian Griffon and Egyptian Vulture (553 Dobrev, D., and S. Stoychev (2013). Vulture conservation in Bulgaria. In Proceedings of the Griffon Vulture Conference 6-8 March 2013, Limassol, Cyprus (BirdLife Cyprus, Editor), BirdLife Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus. pp. 38–52. Close ).

Pesticides and Other Contaminants/Toxics

In Eurasian Griffon found dead between 2008–2019 in southeastern France (n = 90), 32% were positive for anticoagulant rodenticides (554 Moriceau, M. A., S. Lefebvre, I. Fourel, E. Benoit, F. Buronfosse-Roque, P. Orabi, B. A. Rattner, and V. Lattard (2022). Exposure of predatory and scavenging birds to anticoagulant rodenticides in France: exploration of data from French surveillance programs. Science of The Total Environment 810:151291. Close ). In a larger sample from France (n = 136), prevalence of second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides in the liver was 46%; mean hepatic concentration was 22.0 ng/g ww, and 5% of positive birds had concentrations > 100 ng/g ww, which is considered a potentially lethal risk (555 Fourel, I., F. Roque, P. Orabi, S. Augiron, F. X. Couzi, M. P. Puech, T. Chetot, and V. Lattard (2024). Stereoselective bioaccumulation of chiral anticoagulant rodenticides in the liver of predatory and scavenging raptors. Science of the Total Environment 917:170545. Close ). Second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides were detected in blood of 16.92% of Eurasian Griffon examined (n = 65) from Cataluña and Aragón Regions (Spain; 556 Oliva-Vidal, P., J. M. Martínez, I. S. Sánchez-Barbudo, P. R. Camarero, M. À. Colomer, A. Margalida, and R. Mateo (2022). Second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides in the blood of obligate and facultative European avian scavengers. Environmental Pollution 315:120385. Close ).

Illegal Poison

Illegal poisoned baits are used primarily for carnivore control in hunting estates; the Eurasian Griffon is not the target species of these illegal poison baits, but it is the most affected in Spain. In 1986, four were found poisoned by strychnine in the Sierra de Hornachuelos Natural Park (Córdoba Province, Andalucía Region, Spain; 367 Acedo García, F., and J. M. Ruiz Mangas (1987). El Buitre leonado (Gyps fulvus) y el negro (Aegypius monachus) en el parque natural de las Sierra de Hornachuelos. Oxyura. Revista sobre las zonas húmedas 4: 222–232. Close ). During the period from 1992–2013, 1,576 Eurasian Griffon were documented as poisoned in Spain among a total of 6,307 raptors poisoned by illegal baits (557 Cano, C., D. de la Bodega, P. Ayerza, and E. Mínguez (2016). El veneno en España. Evolución del envenenamiento de fauna silvestre (1992-2013). WWF y SEO/BirdLife, Madrid, Spain. Close ). In Teruel Province (Aragón Region, Spain), five Eurasian Griffon were recorded to be killed by poison during the period from 2000–2002 (506 Gil, J. A., J. L. Lagares, and M. Alcántara (2009). Seguimiento radio-telemétrico del Buitre leonado (Gyps fulvus) en el Sistema ibérico oriental (Aragón, España). Teruel 92: 137–164. Close ). The main cause of mortality in Cyprus was poisoning (80.39%, n = 51; 185 Iezekiel, S., D. E. Bakaloudis, and C. G. Vlachos (2004). The status and conservation of Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus in Cyprus. In Raptors Worldwide. Proceedings of the 6th World Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls May 2003, Budapest, Hungary (R. D. Chancellor and B.-U. Meyburg, Editors), World Working Group on Birds of Prey and Owls and MME/BirdLife Hungary, Penti Kft. Budapest, Hungary. pp. 67–73. Close ). Illegal poison was also the main cause of mortality in the Pyrennees (France; 558 Berny, P., L. Vilagines, J. M. Cugnasse, O. Mastain, J. Y. Chollet, G. Joncour, and M. Razin (2015). Vigilance Poison: Illegal poisoning and lead intoxication are the main factors affecting avian scavenger survival in the Pyrenees (France). Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 118: 71–82. Close ). Poisoning by carbofuran of 17 Eurasian Griffon was recorded in Rab Island (Croatia) in 2004 (559 Pavoković, G., and G. Sušić (2005). Poisoning of 17 Eurasian Griffons by carbofuran on the Island of Rab, Croatia, in December 2004. Vulture News 53: 24–25. Close , 560 Muzinic, J. (2007). Poisoning of seventeen Eurasian Griffons (Gyps fulvus) in Croatia. Journal of Raptor Research 41(3): 239–242. Close ); in addition, another individual was shown to have methomyl in its system when it died, which is a systemic insecticide (561 Sabočanec, R., D. Konjević, E. Srebočan, and Z. Petrinec (2005). Fatal poisoning of a Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) with methomyl. European Journal of Wildlife Research 51: 210–212. Close ). In Crete (Greece), 36 were killed by illegal use of poisoned baits with insecticides and herbicides (methomyl, carbofuran, paraquat, and parathion) during the period from 1990–1999; these birds represented three entire colonies (562 Xirouchakis, S., G. Andreou, and G. Arnellos (2000). The impact of poisoned baits set for vermin on the population of vultures in Crete (Greece). Incidences of secondary poisoning during 1990–1999. Vulture News 42: 13–24. Close ). In Eastern Rhodopes (Bulgaria), 42.1% of Eurasian Griffon found dead between 1979–2011 were poisoned (n = 38; 434 Demerdzhiev, D., H. Hristov, D. Dobrev, I. Angelov, and M. Kurtev (2014). Long-term Population Status, Breeding Parameters and Limiting Factors of the Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus Hablizl, 1783) Population in the Eastern Rhodopes, Bulgaria. Acta Zoologica Bulgarica 66(3): 373–384. Close ). In southern Balkan Peninsula, birds were affected by strychnine, carbamate, and organophosphorus compounds that were illegally used for poisoning, mostly to kill gray wolf (Canis lupus), between 1982 and 2017 (563 Parvanov, D., E. Stoynov, N. Vangelova, H. Peshev, A. Grozdanov, V. Delov, and Y. Iliev (2018). Vulture mortality resulting from illegal poisoning in the southern Balkan Peninsula. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 25: 1706–1712. Close ). In the Cantabrian Mountains (Spain), a total of 112 poisoning events were recorded between 2000–2010, and most of the reported deaths were Eurasian Griffon (564 Mateo-Tomás, P., P. P. Olea, I. S. Sánchez-Barbudo, and R. Mateo (2012). Alleviating human–wildlife conflicts: identifying the causes and mapping the risk of illegal poisoning of wild fauna. Journal of Applied Ecology 49: 376–385. Close ). In Israel, 13 were poisoned by pesticides in 1972 and 19 in 1980 in the Golan (108 Shirihai, H. (1996). The Birds of Israel: A Complete Avifauna and Bird Atlas of Israel. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ), and another study counted 64 poisoned Eurasian Griffon between 2001–2012 (547 Hatzofe, O. (2013). Working with vultures in Israel: Conservation, mortality factors, survival, PVA model of the Griffon vultures in Israel & the Middle East. In Proceedings of the Griffon Vulture Conference 6-8 March 2013, Limassol, Cyprus (BirdLife Cyprus, Editor), BirdLife Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus. pp. 36–37. Close ). In Köprülü Kanyon National Park (Türkiye), five were killed by poison in 2010 (565 Özturk, Y., and M. A. Tabur (2013). A Species in an ever shrinking habitat in Isparta and Antalya: Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus). Journal of Natural and Applied Science 17(3):18–25. Close ). In addition to being poisoned by intentionally placed baits, persistent organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) from other, indirect sources, have been detected in blood plasma of Eurasian Griffon from Ahmedabad, India (n = 6; 566 Dhananjayan, V., S. Muralidharan, and P. Jayanthi (2011). Distribution of persistent organochlorine chemical residues in blood plasma of three species of vultures from India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 173: 803–811. Close ).

In a sample of GPS-tagged Eurasian Griffon (n = 20) monitored from December 2016 to October 2020 in central and southern Apennines (Italy), 40% died by poisoning (567 Monti, F., P. Serroni, F. Rotondaro, A. Sangiuliano, A. Sforzi, G. Opramolla, A. Pascazi, S. Spacca, F. La Civita, and M. Posillico (2022). Survival of a small reintroduced griffon vulture population in the Apennines: Insights from Global Positioning System tracking. Avian Biology Research 16(1):3-13 Close ). In Central Italy, the most important cause of death in Eurasian Griffon between 1994–2020 was poisoning (53.4%, n = 103), mainly caused by carbamates, but organochlorines, organophosphates, strychnine, and zinc phosphide were also reported. Up to six toxic substances were detected in a single bird (568 Posillico, M., A. Costanzo, S. Bottoni, T. Altea, G. Opramolla, A. Pascazi, M. Panella, and R. Ambrosini (2023). Reported mortality of Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus in central Italy and indications for conservation and management. Bird Conservation International 33:e68. Close ). In Nepal, two Eurasian Griffon were killed by illegal use of poisoned baits to kill carnivores during the period from 2011–2023 (569 Busal, K. P., I. P. Chaudhary, D. B. Rana, D. C. Thakuri, A. B. Joshi, B. Karki, and J. W. Mallord (2023). Poisoned baits pose a threat to vultures in Nepal. Nepalese Journal of Zoology 7(1):14–19. Close ).

Lead Poisoning

Lead contamination is a significant threat for vultures (570 Plaza, P. I., and S. A. Lambertucci (2019). What do we know about lead contamination in wild vultures and condors? A review of decades of research. Science of the Total Environment 654: 409–417. Close , 571 Descalzo, E., and R. Mateo (2018). La contaminación por munición de plomo en Europa: el plumbismo aviar y las implicaciones en la seguridad de la carne de caza. Colección ATNEA, 13. Ediciones de la Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Ciudad Real, España. Close ). A common cause of clinical lead poisoning in wild birds is the ingestion of lead ammunition used for hunting. In a sample of Eurasian Griffon (n = 6) from Murcia Region (Spain), mean lead blood level was 37.9 μg/dl (572 García-Fernández, A. J., J. A. Sánchez-García, P. Jiménez-Montalbán, and A. Luna (1995). Lead and Cadmium in wild birds in southestern Spain. Enviromental Toxicology and Chemistry 14(12): 2049–2058. Close ). In birds from Aragón Region (Spain) that were sampled throughout the year between 2008 and 2012 (n = 691), 310 individuals (44.9%) had blood concentrations of more than 20 μg/dl, the threshold for abnormal exposure; 29 birds (4.2%) were in the clinical exposure range (50–100 μg/dl), and 10 (1.4%) had potentially lethal levels above 100 μg/dl. In this study, lead poisoning from ammunition did contribute to the high levels that were detected in birds, but high concentrations of naturally occurring lead in the soil also contributed to the high levels seen in this population (573 Mateo-Tomás, P., P. P. Olea, M. Jiménez-Moreno, P. R. Camarero, I. S. Sánchez-Barbudo, R. C. Rodríguez Martín-Doimeadios, and R. Mateo (2016). Mapping the spatio-temporal risk of lead exposure in apex species for more effective mitigation. Proceedings of the Royal Society Series B Biological Sciences 283(1835): 20160662. Close ). Lead exposure from topsoil can be more important than previously considered. A study carried out in northern (Bardenas Reales Natural Park) and southern (Sierras de Cazorla, Segura y las Villas Natural Park) populations of Spain showed that in both populations, lead signatures in blood samples was closer to those in topsoil than in ammunition. However, the importance of ammunition was greater in the southern population, located in an area with greater big game hunting activity (574 Arrondo, E., J. Navarro, J. M. Pérez-García, R. Mateo, P. R. Camarero, R. C. R. Martin-Doimeadios, M. Jiménez-Moreno, A. Cortés- Avizanda, I. Navas, A. J. García-Fernández, J. A. Sánches-Zapata, and J. A. Donázar (2020). Dust and bullets: stable isotopes and GPS tracking disentangle lead sources for a large avian scavenger. Environmental Pollution 266(3):115022. Close ).

Lead poisoning was the second main cause of mortality (2.5%, n = 119) in the Pyrennees (France; 558 Berny, P., L. Vilagines, J. M. Cugnasse, O. Mastain, J. Y. Chollet, G. Joncour, and M. Razin (2015). Vigilance Poison: Illegal poisoning and lead intoxication are the main factors affecting avian scavenger survival in the Pyrenees (France). Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 118: 71–82. Close ). In a sample of Eurasian Griffon found dead or sick in Spain between 2004–2020, 10.5% (n = 257) had lead levels in the liver of greater than 30 μg/g dry weight of lead, which is associated with severe clinical poisoning (575 Descalzo, E., P. R. Camarero, I. S. Sánchez-Barbudo, M. Martinez-Haro, M. E. Ortiz-Santaliestra, R. Moreno-Opo, and R. Mateo (2021). Integrating active and passive monitoring to assess sublethal effects and mortality from lead poisoning in birds of prey. Science of The Total Environment 750: 142260. Close ). In birds captured in Spain between 2016–2017, lead levels in blood had a mean value of 38.4 μg/dl ± 3.64 SE (n = 118). Subclinical poisoning values (>20 μg/dl) were detected in 73.7% of individuals, clinical poisoning (>50 μg/dl) in 17.8% of individuals, and severe clinical poisoning (>100 μg/dl) in 4.2% of individuals (575 Descalzo, E., P. R. Camarero, I. S. Sánchez-Barbudo, M. Martinez-Haro, M. E. Ortiz-Santaliestra, R. Moreno-Opo, and R. Mateo (2021). Integrating active and passive monitoring to assess sublethal effects and mortality from lead poisoning in birds of prey. Science of The Total Environment 750: 142260. Close ).

Birds from Cazorla Natural Park (Spain) suffered subclinical exposure to lead (n = 23), with some individuals exposed to high toxicity risk (576 García-Fernández, A. J., E. Martínez- López, D. Romero, P. María-Mojica, A. Godino, and P. Jiménez (2005). High levels of blood lead in Griffon Vultures (Gyps fulvus) from Cazorla Natural Park (southern Spain). Environmental Toxicology 20(4): 459-463. Close ). On the Iberian Peninsula, three individuals received at wildlife rehabilitation centers died within 24 h; metal analyses revealed extremely high lead concentrations, and one had 9 lead pellets in its stomach (577 Carneiro, M. A., P. A. Oliveira, R. Brandao, O. Nicolás Francisco, R. Velarde, S. Lavin, and B. Colaco (2016). Lead Poisoning Due to Lead-Pellet Ingestion in Griffon Vultures (Gyps fulvus) From the Iberian Peninsula. Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery 30(3): 274–279. Close ). In a sample from Central Spain (n = 56), one individual had clinical lead exposure; there was no correlation detected between clinical signs, hematological values, body condition, and blood lead levels (578 Rodríguez-Ramos, J., V. Gutiérrez, U. Höfle, R. Mateo, L. Monsalve, E. Crespo, and J. M. Blanco (2009). Lead in Griffon and Cinereous Vultures in Central Spain: Correlations between clinical signs and blood lead levels. In Ingestion of Lead from Spent Ammunition: Implications for Wildlife and Humans (R. T. Watson, M. Fuller, M. Pokras and W. G. Hunt, Editors), The Peregrine Fund, Boise, Idaho, USA. pp. 1–2. Close ). In Israel, on individual received at a wildlife hospital had blood lead levels of 804.8 μg/dl, regurgitated a 9 mm lead bullet, and died in a week (579 Horowitz, I. H., E. Yanco, R. V. Nadler, N. Anglister, S. Landau, R. Elias, A. Lublin, S. Perl, N. Edery, and A. B. Rosenzweig (2014). Acute Lead Poisoning in a Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus) in Israel. Israel Journal of Veterinary Medicine 69(3): 163–168. Close ); between 2001–2012, 5 birds had been found to be poisoned with lead (547 Hatzofe, O. (2013). Working with vultures in Israel: Conservation, mortality factors, survival, PVA model of the Griffon vultures in Israel & the Middle East. In Proceedings of the Griffon Vulture Conference 6-8 March 2013, Limassol, Cyprus (BirdLife Cyprus, Editor), BirdLife Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus. pp. 36–37. Close ).

In Bulgaria, an Eurasian Griffon tracked during two years was found dead. Postmortem examination showed two lead pellets from a gunshot in one wing. Lead in bone and liver samples showed subclinical/chronic lead values, suggesting long-term exposure to lead, possibly from the pellets found in its wing (580 Stamenov, A., I. Lazarova, V. Arkumarev, S. Dimitrova, N. Terziev, A. Delchev, and D. Dobrev (2021). Long-term lead intoxication of Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus Hablizl, 1783) supposedly the result of illegal shooting. Ornis Hungarica 29(1):179–185. Close ).

Pharmaceutical Products

Use of veterinary pharmaceuticals in domestic ungulates can affect the health of vulture populations. A high proportion of nestlings contaminated by residues of fluroquinolones, antibiotics used for the treatment of livestock, has been detected in Eurasian Griffon colonies that are geographically distant from each other and at different times of the year, but its effects are poorly known (581 Blanco, G., A. Junza, D. Segarra, J. Barbosa, and D. Barrón (2016). Wildlife contamination with fluoroquinolones from livestock: Widespread occurrence of enrofloxacin and marbofloxacin in cultures. Chemosphere 144: 1536–1543. Close , 582 Blanco, G., M. Carrete, I. Navas, and A. J. García-Fernández (2024). Age and sex differences in pharmaceutical contamination in a keystone scavenger. Environmental Research 251(1):118592. Close ). Quinolone residues were detected in plasma of 65% of the birds examined from Navarra and Cataluña Regions (n = 106), but maximum concentrations were only 0.4 μg/mL, lower than those used in the clinical treatment of scavengers (583 Casas-Díaz, E., C. Cristofol, R. Cuenca, S. Agusti, M. Carneiro, I. Marco, S. Lavin, and A. Margalida (2016). Determination of fluoroquinolone antibiotic residues in the plasma of Eurasian griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus) in Spain. Science of the Total Environment 557: 620–626. Close ). In Aragón Region (Spain), medicated livestock carcasses and landfill sites were important sources of highly toxic veterinary pharmaceuticals for the Eurasian Griffon (584 Herrero-Villar, M., M. A. Taggart, and R. Mateo (2023). Medicated livestock carcasses and landfill sites: Sources of highly toxic veterinary pharmaceuticals and caffeine for avian scavengers. Journal of Hazardous Materials 459:132195. Close ).

The Eurasian Griffon is more exposed to antibiotics when feeding on livestock carcasses from intensive farming. In birds from Spain sampled between 2008 and 2012, quinolones were detected in plasma from 12.9% of individuals (n = 657), and quinolone prevalence was influenced by pig carcasses supplied at supplementary feeding stations (585 Herrero-Villar, M., P. Mateo-Tomás, P. R. Camarero, I. Sánchez-Barbudo, M. A. Taggart, and R. Mateo (2022). Determinants of the exposure of Eurasian Griffon Vultures (Gyps Fulvus) to fluoroquinolones used in livestock: the role of supplementary feeding stations. Environmental Pollution 311:119923 Close ).

In 2013, Spain authorized the use of two veterinary drugs, Dolofenac and Diclovet, which contain diclofenac, an anti-inflammatory drug for the treatment of livestock; diclofenac has been demonstrated to have caused rapid declines in other Gyps vultures in Asia (586 Swan, G. E., R. Cuthbert, M. Quevedo, R. E. Green, D. J. Pain, P. Bartels, A. A. Cunningham, N. Duncan, A. A. Meharg, J. L. Oaks, J. Parry-Jones, S. Shultz, M. A. Taggart, G. Verdoorn, and K. Wolter (2006). Toxicity of diclofenac to Gyps vultures. Biology Letters 2(2):279-282. Close ). It has been estimated that its use could cause the death of 715–6,389 Eurasian Griffon each year in Spain (587 Green, R. E., J. A. Donázar, J. A. Sánchez-Zapata, and A. Margalida (2016). Potential threat to Eurasian Griffon Vultures in Spain from veterinary use of the drug diclofenac. Journal of Applied Ecology 53(4): 993–1003. Close ). In 2014, it was estimated that overlap between diclofenac exposure and the range and population size of the Eurasian Griffon in Spain was 58% and 57%, respectively (588 Camiña, A., J. Aguilera, F. Sarrazin, and O. Duriez (2018). Potential exposure to diclofenac in Spain of European vultures. Vulture News 75: 1–20. Close ). However, no Eurasian Griffon were found dead or injured in Spain by diclofenac ingestion during 2013–2019 (589 Moreno-Opo, R., R. Carapeto, R. Casimiro, C. Rubio, B. Muñoz, I. Moreno, and M. Aymerich (2021). The veterinary use of diclofenac and vulture conservation in Spain: Updated evidence and socio-ecological implications. Science of the Total Environment 796:148851. Close ).

A dead Eurasian Griffon containing high levels of flunixin, another anti-inflammatory drug, was found in Andalucía Region (Spain) in 2012 (590 Zorrilla, I., R. Martínez, M. A. Taggart, and N. Richards (2014). Suspected flunixin poisoning of a wild Eurasian Griffon Vulture from Spain. Conservation Biology 29(2): 587–592. Close ). In a sample of Eurasian Griffon found dead in Spain, flunixin was associated with visceral gout and/or kidney damage in 0.98% (n = 306; 591 Herrero-Villar, M., R. Velarde, P. R. Camarero, M. A. Taggart, V. Bandeira, C. Fonseca, I. Marco, and R. Mateo (2020). NSAIDs detected in Iberian avian scavengers and carrion after diclofenac registration for veterinary use in Spain. Environmental Pollution 266(2):115157. Close ).

In India, 791 vultures of three species (Eurasian Griffon, Cinereous Vulture, and Egyptian Vulture) were found dead at Jorbeer dumping site (Rajasthan, India) from 2017–2022. The causative agent of the deaths has not been identified, but it could be Ketoprofen and/ or Phenylbutazone, drugs used to treat livestock (592 Bohra, D. L., and M. S. Rao (2023). Raptors Mortality in Northwest Rajasthan, India (2017–2022). Raptors Conservation S2:172–174. Close ).

Collisions with Stationary/Moving Structures or Objects

Collisions with wind turbines are a major cause of mortality in the Eurasian Griffon. The rapid development of wind energy suggests that mortality rates may increase; in Crete (Greece), for example, it has been estimated that the minimum number of fatalities from collisions with wind turbines would be 84 individuals per year, based on current and planned wind energy projects (593 Xirouchakis S. M., E. Armeni, S. Nikolopoulou, and J. Halley (2019). Estimating the Potential Mortality of Griffon Vultures (Gyps fulvus) Due to Wind Energy Development on the Island of Crete (Greece). In Wind Energy and Wildlife Impacts (R. Bispo, J. Bernardino, H. Coelho and L. J. Costa, Editors), Springer Nature Switzerland, Cham, Switzerland. pp. 205–222. Close ). There is extensive overlap between wind farms and breeding areas in the northern half of Spain (594 Tellería, J. L. (2009). Overlap between wind power plants and Griffon Vultures Gyps fulvus in Spain. Bird Study 56(2): 268–271. Close ), and the Eurasian Griffon is the bird of prey that suffers the highest mortality from collisions with wind turbines in the country; Atienza et al. (595 Atienza, J. C., I. Martín Fierro, O. Infante, J. Valls, and J. Domínguez (2011). Directrices para la evaluación del impacto de los parques eólicos en aves y murciélagos. Versión 3.0. SEO/BirdLife, Madrid, Spain. Close ) recorded 1,079 Eurasian Griffon killed by collisions in wind turbines here. In the region of Castilla y León (Spain), during the period 2001-2016, two wildlife rescue centers recorded 1,901 Eurasian Griffon death due to collision with wind turbines (596 Balmori-de la Puente, A., and A. Balmori (2023). Flight type and seasonal movements are important predictors for avian collisions in wind farms. Birds 4:85–100. Close ). Another area where it suffers especially high mortality rates is Tarifa (Cádiz Province, Spain), where migrants congregate to cross the Strait of Gibraltar (597 Acha, A. (1998). Negative impact of wind generators on the Eurasian griffon Gyps fulvus in Tarifa, Spain. Vulture News 38: 10–18. Close ). In the Campo de Gibraltar area (1,529 km²) in Cádiz Province, where Tarifa is located, there were 488 wind turbines in 2002 (598 Barrios, L., and A. Rodríguez (2007). Patrones espaciales y temporales de mortalidad de aves en dos parques eólicos del sur de España. In Aves y parques eólicos. Valoración del riesgo y atenuantes (M. De Lucas, F. E. Guyonne and M. Ferrer, Editors), Quercus, Madrid, Spain. pp. 241–253. Close ). Mortality rates in Tarifa have been recorded as ranging from 0.15 to 0.34 Eurasian Griffon/turbine/year (599 Barrios, L., and A. Rodríguez (2004). Behavioural and environmental correlates of soaring-bird mortality at on-shore wind turbines. Journal of Applied Ecology 41(1): 72–81. Close , 600 Ferrer, M., M. de Lucas, G. F. E. Janss, E. Casado, A. R. Muñoz, M. J. Bechard, and C. P. Calabuig (2012). Weak relationship between risk assessment studies and recorded mortality in wind farms. Journal of Applied Ecology 49(1): 38–46. Close ). Sixty-three percent of soaring birds killed at two wind farms in Tarifa (n = 256 wind turbines) between December 1993 and December 1994 were Eurasian Griffon, and the rate of birds killed was 0.12 Eurasian Griffon/turbine/year (598 Barrios, L., and A. Rodríguez (2007). Patrones espaciales y temporales de mortalidad de aves en dos parques eólicos del sur de España. In Aves y parques eólicos. Valoración del riesgo y atenuantes (M. De Lucas, F. E. Guyonne and M. Ferrer, Editors), Quercus, Madrid, Spain. pp. 241–253. Close ), and between 2006–2009, 221 Eurasian Griffon were found dead here (601 De Lucas, M., M. Ferrer, M. J. Bechard, and A. R. Muñoz (2012). Griffon Vulture mortality at wind farms in southern Spain: Distribution of fatalities and active mitigation measures. Biological Conservation 147(1): 184–189. Close ). Collisions with wind turbines occur mainly in autumn and winter, and when thermals are absent and birds ascend the slopes (599 Barrios, L., and A. Rodríguez (2004). Behavioural and environmental correlates of soaring-bird mortality at on-shore wind turbines. Journal of Applied Ecology 41(1): 72–81. Close ); more collisions also occur when upward currents are worse, such as on gentle slopes, and when the turbines are taller and at higher elevations (602 De Lucas, M., G. F. E. Janss, D. P. Whitfield, and M. Ferrer (2008). Collision fatality of raptors in wind farms does not depend on raptor abundance. Journal of Applied Ecology 45(6): 1695–1703. Close ).

Mortality by electrocution or collision with power lines is another cause of concern. In Spain, 1,008 Eurasian Griffon (7.89% of the total number of birds recorded) were detected dead by electrocution between 1990–2019 (603 Grefa (2020). Libro Blanco de la electrocución en España. Análisis y propuestas. Madrid, Spain. Close ). In Doñana National Park (Huelva Province, Spain), along 100 km of monitored lines, 14 were recorded as killed by electrocution among a total of 233 birds (9 previously dead birds and 5 that died during the period July 1982–July 1983; 604 Ferrer, M., M. De la Riva, and J. Castroviejo (1991). Electrocution of raptors on power lines in southwestern Spain. Journal of Field Ornithology 62(2): 181–190. Close ). During the period from 1988–1996, a Eurasian Griffon killed by electrocution was found in the foothills of the eastern Sierra Morena and Campo de Montiel (Castilla-La Mancha Region, Spain) among a total of 274 raptors (605 Guzmán, J., and J. P. Castaño (1998). Electrocución de rapaces en líneas eléctricas de distribución en Sierra Morena oriental y Campo de Montiel. Ardeola 45(2): 161–169. Close ). In Teruel Province (Aragón Region, Spain), 40 Eurasian Griffon were killed by electrocution between 2000–2002 (506 Gil, J. A., J. L. Lagares, and M. Alcántara (2009). Seguimiento radio-telemétrico del Buitre leonado (Gyps fulvus) en el Sistema ibérico oriental (Aragón, España). Teruel 92: 137–164. Close ). Between 1997–2003, one was killed by electrocution and was found among a total of 108 raptors along three power lines in Andalucía Region (Buenavista, Villanueva de los Castillejos and Las Infantas; 606 Moleón, M., J. Bautista, J. R. Garrido, J. Martín-Jaramillo, E. Avila, and A. Madero (2007). La corrección de tendidos eléctricos en áreas de dispersión de águila-azor perdicera: efectos potenciales positivos sobre la comunidad de aves rapaces. Ardeola 54(2): 319–325. Close ). In the periphery of Special Protection Areas in Valencia Region, 20 Eurasian Griffon were found dead by electrocution among a total of 400 birds between 2000–2010 (607 Pérez-García, J. M., F. Botella, J. A. Sánchez-Zapata, and M. Moleón (2011). Conserving outside protected areas: Edge effects and avian electrocutions on the periphery of Special Protection Areas. Bird Conservation International 21(3): 296–302. Close ). In a study in which 333 lines and 6,304 high voltage poles were controlled in Ciudad Real Province and Albacete Province (Castilla-La Mancha Region) between October 2004 and December 2009, 952 birds of prey were killed by electrocution, of which 30 (3.2%) were Eurasian Griffon (608 Guil, F., M. Fernández-Olalla, R. Moreno-Opo, I. Mosqueda, M. E. Gómez, A. Aranda, A. Arredondo, J. Guzmán, J. Oria, L. M. González, and A. Margalida (2011). Minimising Mortality in Endangered Raptors Due to Power Lines: The Importance of Spatial Aggregation to Optimize the Application of Mitigation Measures. PloS ONE 6(11): e28212. Close ). Single electrocuted Eurasian Griffon were documented in Crimea in 1997 (609 Appak, B. A. (2018). Belogolovyy sip Gyps fulvus v Krymu. Russkiy Ornitologicheskiy Zhurnal 27, Ekspress-vypusk 1609: 2271–2274. Close ) and Kondrajec Pański (Poland) in 2006 (226 Betleja, J., A. Pajak, and P. Pagórski (2006). The Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus near Ciechanów. Kulon 11: 108–109. Close ). In Israel, five had collided with power lines or other infrastructure between 2001–2012 (547 Hatzofe, O. (2013). Working with vultures in Israel: Conservation, mortality factors, survival, PVA model of the Griffon vultures in Israel & the Middle East. In Proceedings of the Griffon Vulture Conference 6-8 March 2013, Limassol, Cyprus (BirdLife Cyprus, Editor), BirdLife Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus. pp. 36–37. Close ), and 51 were killed by electrocution in the Golan between 1980–1984 (108 Shirihai, H. (1996). The Birds of Israel: A Complete Avifauna and Bird Atlas of Israel. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ). In a dumping site in Jodhpur (India), 10 out of 23 birds killed by electrocution were Eurasian Griffon (610 Saran, R. P., and A. Purohit (2012). Eco-transformation and electrocution. A major concern for the decline in vulture population in and around Jodhpur. International Journal of Conservation Science 3(2): 111–118. Close ). In Iran, during a one year survey (2018) of power lines throughout the country, 235 electrocuted birds were recorded, including one Eurasian Griffon (611 Kolnegari, M., G. J. Conway, A. A. Basiri, C. T. Panter, M. Hazrati, M. S. Rafiee, M. Ferrer, and J. F. Dwyer (2020). Electrical Components Involved in Avian-Caused Outages in Iran. Bird Conservation International 31(3):364-378 Close ). In a sample of GPS-tagged Eurasian Griffon (n = 20), monitored from December 2016 to October 2020 in central and southern Apennines (Italy), 20% died by collision with wind turbines (567 Monti, F., P. Serroni, F. Rotondaro, A. Sangiuliano, A. Sforzi, G. Opramolla, A. Pascazi, S. Spacca, F. La Civita, and M. Posillico (2022). Survival of a small reintroduced griffon vulture population in the Apennines: Insights from Global Positioning System tracking. Avian Biology Research 16(1):3-13 Close ). A juvenile Eurasian Griffon was killed by collision with a wind turbine in Madeira Island (Portugal) in November 2021 (167 Rodrigues, J. M., and C. Lobo (2022). First record of the Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus Hablizl, 1783), Accipitridae on Madeira Island. Bocagiana 251:01–05. Close ).

Collisions with moving vehicles, including aircraft and cars, is another threat. Between 2006–2015, 26 collisions were recorded with aircraft around Madrid-Barajas airport (Spain; 612 Margalida, A. (2016). Stop vultures from striking aircraft. Nature 536(7616): 274. Close ). In 1987, an F-4 jet struck an Eurasian Griffon in Spain, killing the pilot instantly and the navigator when it hit the ground moments later (613 Defusco, R. P. (1993). Modeling bird hazards to aircraft: a GIS application study. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 59: 1481–1487. Close ). In Aragón Region (Spain), 643 bird roadkills were recorded during 2012–2014. The species with the highest incidence (120 cases) was the Eurasian Griffon, with a mean of 3.3 roadkills per month (614 Vidal-Vallés, D., A. Rodríguez, and E. Pérez-Collazos (2018). Bird roadkill occurences in Aragon, Spain. Animal Biodiversity and Conservation 41(2):379–388. Close ). PMVC (326 PMVC (2003). Mortalidad de vertebrados en carreteras. Documento técnico de conservación no 4. Sociedad para la Conservación de los Vertebrados (SCV), Madrid, Spain. Close ) recorded six Eurasian Griffon killed by road traffic accidents among a total of 16,036 birds in Spain, while another seven were recorded as hit by trains among 182 other birds in another study (615 SCV (1996). Mortalidad de vertebrados en líneas de ferrocarril. Documentos Técnicos de Conservación SCV, no 1. Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain. Close ). Migrant birds were killed by cars in road accidents around Jodhpur, India (212 Chhangani, A. K., and S. M. Mohnot (2008). Demography of migratory vultures in and around Jodhpur, India. Vulture News 58: 23–34. Close ), and in Russia, a single Eurasian Griffon was recorded as being hit by a car near Markelovo (Tomsk Region, Western Siberia) in 2012 (160 Tyutenkov, O. Y. (2018). Zaloty belogolovogo sipa Gyps fulvus v tayozhnuyu zonu Zapadnoy Sibiri. Russkiy Ornitologicheskiy Zhurnal 27, Ekspress-vypusk 1686: 5279–5280. Close ), and near Konstantinovskoye (Stavropol Region) in 2007 (549 Ilyukh, M. P. (2017). Belogolovyy sip Gyps fulvus i chornyy grif Aegypius monachus na Stavropolye. Russkiy Ornitologicheskiy Zhurnal 26, Ekspress-vypusk 1388:3–9. Close ).

Human/Research Impacts

Various other human activities can have direct impacts on the Eurasian Griffon, from direct mortality, nest destruction, and disturbance at the nest. In northern India, people fly kites as entertainment during the festival Uthrayan, which falls in January every year; between January 2005 and January 2007, six Eurasian Griffon were recorded dying due to kite injuries at Ahmedabad (566 Dhananjayan, V., S. Muralidharan, and P. Jayanthi (2011). Distribution of persistent organochlorine chemical residues in blood plasma of three species of vultures from India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 173: 803–811. Close ). Controlled burns carried out in the Pyrenees have destroyed occupied nests in 1985 and 1986 (17 Elosegi, I. (1989). Vautour fauve (Gyps fulvus), Gypaete barbu (Gypaetus barbatus), percnoptere d’Egypte (Neophron percnopterus): Synthèse bibliographique et recherches. Acta Biologica Montana, Série documents de travail 3: 1–278. Close ).

In Demir Kapija (Northern Macedonia), a Eurasian Griffon, disturbed by the presence of two mountaineers, flew out of the nest leaving the nestling alone, which was preyed upon by a Common Raven (386 Grubač, B. (2000). The Raven (Corvus corax) as a predator of a young Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus). In Bearded Vulture annual report 2000 (H. Frey, G. Schaden and M. Bijleveld van Lexmond, Editors), Foundation of the Conservation of the Bearded Vulture, Wassenaar, The Netherlands. pp. 102–103. Close ). Disturbance at the nest has also led to egg and nestling depredation by the Yellow-legged Gull when adults were forced to flush by human presence (17 Elosegi, I. (1989). Vautour fauve (Gyps fulvus), Gypaete barbu (Gypaetus barbatus), percnoptere d’Egypte (Neophron percnopterus): Synthèse bibliographique et recherches. Acta Biologica Montana, Série documents de travail 3: 1–278. Close ). In the region of Cataluña (Spain), the abandonment of incubated eggs and young chicks due to human interference was recorded between 1979–1980 (313 Marco, J., and D. García (1981). Situation actuelle des populations de necrophagues (Gyps fulvus, Gypaetus barbatus, et Neophron percnopterus) en Catalogne. In Rapaces Mediterranéens (G. Cheylan and J. C. Thibault, Editors). Annales du Centre de Recherche Ornithologique de Provence, 1, Aix-en-Provence, France. pp. 66–69. Close ). In Sardinia (Italy), 17.2% (n = 87) of broods were lost due to human interference (photographers, tourists, and/or hunters) between 1971–1984 (184 Schenk, H., M. Aresu, and G. Serra (1987). Sull’ecologia e sulla conservazione del Grifone (Gyps fulvus) nella Sardegna nord-occidentale, 1971-1984. Supplemento Ricerche di Biologia della Selvaggina 12: 217–233. Close , 86 Genero, F., F. Perco, and B. Dentesani (1996). Il Grifone in Italia e nel mondo. Biologia e strategie di conservazione. Franco Muzzio, Padova, Italy. Close ). In addition to loss of eggs and chicks, entire nesting and roosting areas were abandoned in Yazili Kanyon National Park (Türkiye) as a result of increased activity at nearby marble quarries (565 Özturk, Y., and M. A. Tabur (2013). A Species in an ever shrinking habitat in Isparta and Antalya: Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus). Journal of Natural and Applied Science 17(3):18–25. Close ).

In the Kvarner archipelago (Croatia), the disturbance caused by tourists caused up to 25 fledglings to fall into the sea every summer, of which about 50% could be rescued thanks to surveillance measures (616 Sušić, G., and V. Radek (2013). Vulture status and conservation in Croatia. In Vulture conservation in the Balkan peninsula and adjacent regions: 10 year of vulture research and conservation (J. Andevski, Editor), Vulture Conservation Foundation, Skopje. pp. 16–19. Close ). The number of visitors in protected areas can affect movement patterns of scavengers. In Bardenas Reales Natural Park (Spain), there was a higher probability of locating GPS-tagged Eurasian Griffon (n = 7) away from core tourist areas of the park on those days with more visitors (617 Donázar, J. A., A. Cortés-Avizanda, E. Arrondo, A. Delgado-González, and O. Ceballos (2023). Hidden effects of high numbers of tourists in protected areas: displacement of foraging top scavengers. Ibis 165(1):305–311. Close ).

The increase in vehicle traffic in Bardenas Reales Natural Park (Navarra Region, Spain) altered patterns of carcass consumption by avian scavengers. The probability of consumption of carrion were reduced the shorter the distance to the road and in days with higher traffic intensity. Eurasian Griffon presence was at its highest early in the morning, suggesting avoidance of maximum traffic levels (618 Donázar, J. A., O. Ceballos, and A. Cortés-Avizanda (2018). Tourism in protected areas: Disentangling road and traffic effects on intra-guild scavenging processes. Science of the Total Environment 630:600–608. Close ).

Conservation Measures and Habitat Management

Supplemental feeding stations, which were first used in 1966 in high Drakensberg of Natal, South Africa, for conservation of both the Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) and Cape Griffon (Gyps coprotheres) (619 Friedman, R., and P. J. Mundy (1983). The Use of “Restaurants” for the Survival of Vultures in South Africa. In Vulture Biology and Management (S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson, Editors), University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA. pp. 345–355. Close ), have been used to save the Eurasian Griffon and other scavengers from extinction. They are now used across across most of Europe, and many populations now largely depend on them for their survival (620 Cortés-Avizanda, A., G. Blanco, T. L. DeVault, A. Markandya, M. Z. Virani, J. Brandt, and J. A. Donázar (2016). Supplementary feeding and endangered avian scavengers: benefits, caveats, and controversies. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 14(4):191–199. Close ). In northern Spain, the Eurasian Griffon often uses carcass dumping sites, intensive farms, and landfills. Birds showed a preference for sites with intermediate values of food abundance versus sites with large amounts of available food. The lack of sanitary control of carrion could negatively affect the Eurasian Griffon; less than 10% of the sites were authorized in northern Spain (621 Fernández-Gómez, L., A. Cortés-Avizanda, E. Arrondo, M. García-Alfonso, O. Ceballos, E. Montelío, and J. A. Donázar (2022). Vultures feeding on the dark side: current sanitary regulations may not be enough. Bird Conservation International 32(4):1-19. Close ). In southern Spain, the Eurasian Griffon and Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus) consumed most of the byproducts of hunted wild ungulates deposited in vulture feeding stations on hunting estates in the Sierra Morena mountain range (622 Gonzálvez, M., J. Paniagua, D. Jiménez-Martín, D. Cano-Terriza, S. Castro-Scholten, J. Barbero-Moyano, S. Jiménez-Ruiz, and I. García-Bocanegra (2023). Monitoring the dynamics of consumption of ungulate game by-products in vulture feeding stations in Iberian Mediterranean ecosystems. Research in Veterinary Science 164:105026. Close ).

Landfill management regulations should take into account the effects that they may have on the conservation of scavenging birds (623 Arévalo-Ayala, D. J., J. Real, C. Durà, J. Aymerich, and A. Hernández-Matías (2022). Reduction of organic waste in a landfill lowers the visitation probability but not the local abundance of a long-lived scavenger species. Bird Conservation International 1–13 Close ). The reduction of organic matter in landfills poses a threat to scavengers such as the Eurasian Griffon. A study carried out in a landfill in northeast Iberia (Spain) showed that the decrease in organic matter from 17,942 tons in 2012 to 450 tons in 2022 increased the proportion of transient adults and immatures, decreased the survival of adults and juveniles, and increased the survival of resident immatures (624 Arévalo-Ayala, D. J., J. Real, S. Mañosa, J. Aymerich, C. Durà, and A. Hernández-Matías (2023). Age-Specific Demographic Response of a Long-Lived Scavenger Species to Reduction of Organic Matter in a Landfill. Animals 13:3529. Close ).

In addition to use of supplemental feeding stations, reintroduction of the Eurasian Griffon began in the 1980s in France and expanded across numerous countries. In France, 61 birds were released from 1980 to 1986 in Grand Causses, 50 were released from 1993 to 1997 in Navacelles, 56 were released from 1996 to 2001 in Baronnies, 43 were released between 1999 and 2001 in Diois, and 90 were released from 1999 to 2004 in Verdon (235 Le Gouar, P., A. Robert, J. P. Choisy, S. Henriquet, P. Lecuyer, C. Tessier, and F. Sarrazin (2008). Roles of survival and dispersal in reintroduction success of griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus). Ecological Applications 18(4): 859–872. Close ). Eurasian Griffon (n = 25) from Crete (Greece) were brought to Cyprus between 2011–2014 ( 185 Iezekiel, S., D. E. Bakaloudis, and C. G. Vlachos (2004). The status and conservation of Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus in Cyprus. In Raptors Worldwide. Proceedings of the 6th World Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls May 2003, Budapest, Hungary (R. D. Chancellor and B.-U. Meyburg, Editors), World Working Group on Birds of Prey and Owls and MME/BirdLife Hungary, Penti Kft. Budapest, Hungary. pp. 67–73. Close ). In Italy, between 1987 and 2005, a total of 60 were released in Sardinia, 60 in Eastern Alps, 97 in Apennines, 35 in Sicily, and 12 in Pollino National Park (181 Genero F. (2006). Status of the Eurasian Griffon vulture Gyps fulvus in Italy in 2005. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Conservation and Management of Vulture Populations. 14-16 November 2005, Thessaloniki, Greece (D. C. Houston and S.E. Piper, Editors), Natural History Museum of Crete & WWF Greece, Athens, Greece. pp. 108–115. Close ). In Bulgaria, 275 were reintroduced between 2010 and 2016 (183 Stoynov, E., E. Kmetova-Biro, G. Stoyanov, H. Peshev, I. Ivanov, I. Stoev, L. Bonchev, N. Vangelova, Z. Nikolova, L. Iankov, D. Parvanov, and A. Grozdanov (2018). Population Boost of the Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus (Hablizl, 1783)(Accipitridae) in Bulgaria Based on Reintroductions. Acta Zoologica Bulgarica 12: 59–65. Close ), with efforts in the Kresna Gorge beginning in 2010 (625 Peshev, H., E. Stoynov, A. Grozdanov, and N. Vangelova (2016). Re-introduction of Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus in Kresna Gorge of Struma River, Bulgaria, Annual Report 2015. Fund for Wild Flora and Fauna, Blagoevgrad, Bulagaria. Close ). A study in Serbia showed that in reintroduction or reinforcement programs, it was preferable to use birds from indigenous or neighboring populations instead of Iberian birds (626 Davidović, S., S. Marinković, M. Kukobat, M. Mihajlović, V. Tanasić, I. Hribšek, M. Tanasković, and M. Stamenković-Radak (2022). Genetic diversity analysis of mitochondrial Cytb gene, phylogeny and phylogeography of protected Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus) from Serbia. Life 12(2):164. Close ).

Other measures to protect the Eurasian Griffon, as well as other species, have included the regulation and banning of practices or items that have contributed to declines. The veterinary drug diclofenac has been banned since 2006 in India, Nepal, and Pakistan, and other Asian countries have since followed. The use of lead in ammunition is regulated or prohibited in European wetlands, but not in other habitats in most countries. Only in the Netherlands and Denmark is there a total ban on the use of lead in hunting ammunition. In Altai Republic (Siberia, Russia), poison use for wolf control is prohibited to officials (627 Irisov, E. A., and N. L. Irisova (2012). O sovremennom rasprostranenii chornogo grifa Aegypius monachus i belogolovogo sipa Gyps fulvus na Altaye. Russkiy Ornitologicheskiy Zhurnal 21, Ekspress-vypusk 832: 3340–3341. Close ).

In the Balkans, tracking data of the Eurasian Griffon (n = 56) identified seven areas frequently used or visited (>95% of the time): Alpo-Adriatic zone, western Serbia, Vrachanski Balkan Nature Park (Bulgaria), eastern Balkan mountains, Struma and Vardar Valleys (North Macedonia-Bulgaria), eastern Rhodopes (Bulgaria-Greece), and western Greece. Conservation actions in the Balkans should be focused in these areas (628 Peshev, H., A. Grozdanov, E. Kmetova–Biro, I. Ivanov, G. Stoyanov, R. Tsiakiris, S. Marin, S. Marinković, G. Sušić, E. Lisichanets, I. Hribšek, Z. Karić, S. Kapelj, L. Bonchev, and E. Stoynov (2021). New insight into spatial ecology of Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus) on the Balkans provides opportunity for focusing conservation actions for a threatened social scavenger. Biodiversity Data Journal 9:e71100. Close ).

Wind energy development should be spatially planned to consider the collision risks of sensitive species. A study in Spain used GPS-tracking data of 127 adult and 50 juvenile Eurasian Griffon during 2014–2022, as well as mortality data from wind farms during 1999–2022, and found that 19% and 10% of the Spanish peninsular area had a high risk of collision for adults and juveniles, respectively (629 Morant, J., E. Arrondo, J. A. Sánchez-Zapata, J. A. Donázar, A. Margalida, M. Carrete, G. Blanco, F. Guil, D. Serrano, and J. M. Pérez-García (2024). Fine-scale collision risk mapping and validation with long-term mortality data reveal current and future wind energy development impact on sensitive species. Environmental Impact Assessment Review 104:107339 Close ).

In Sardinia, dogs have free access to carrion infected by cystic echinococcosis. Carcass disposal for Eurasian Griffon through supplementary feeding stations contribute to limit the spread of the disease through the disruption of parasite’s lifecycle (630 Berlinguer, F., F. Ahmed, C. Tamponi, S. Carta, A. Scala, M. G. Cappai, and A. Varcasia (2021). Help from the sky: Can vultures contribute to Cystic Echinococcosis control in endemic areas? PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 15(7):e0009615. Close ).

With the aim of restoring the natural processes of carrion consumption, a study began in 2022 in 15 National Parks in Germany in which carrion from wild vertebrates was deposited in nature. As a result, in 2023, 21 Eurasian Griffon were observed near a roe deer carcass in Eifel National Park (631 Von Hoermann, C., and J. Schlüter (2024). Belassen von Wildtierkadavern als wesentlicher Bestandteil des Prozessschutzes in 15 deutschen Nationalparks. Wildbiologische Forschungsberichte. In Wildbiologische Forschungsberichte 2024. (Schriftenreihe der Wildbiologen und Jagdwissenschaftler Deutschlands, VWJD, Editors), Band 5, Kessel Verlag, Remagen-Oberwinter. pp. 85–91. Close ).

Effectiveness of Measures

Although supplemental feeding stations have been recognized to be positive for the conservation of the Eurasian Griffon, studies have also warned of uncontrolled effects that can alter natural processes in populations. The availability of food subsidies may have effects on Eurasian Griffon age structure. In northern Spain, a higher proportion of immatures was recorded at landfills and near intensive livestock farms (621 Fernández-Gómez, L., A. Cortés-Avizanda, E. Arrondo, M. García-Alfonso, O. Ceballos, E. Montelío, and J. A. Donázar (2022). Vultures feeding on the dark side: current sanitary regulations may not be enough. Bird Conservation International 32(4):1-19. Close , 632 Fernández-Gómez, L., A. Cortés-Avizanda, P. Tiago, F. Byrne, and J. A. Donázar (2022). Food subsidies shape age structure in a top avian scavenger. Avian Conservation and Ecology 17(1):23. Close ). A study carried out in Segovia and Avila Provinces (Castilla y León Region, Spain) showed that supplementary feeding stations can act as Salmonella reservoirs (633 Blanco, G., and J. A. Díaz de Tuesta (2021). Seasonal and spatial occurrence of zoonotic Salmonella serotypes in griffon vultures at farmland environments: Implications in pathogen pollution and ecosystem services and disservices. Science of The Total Environment 758: 143681. Close ). In addition, intensive farming is a source of bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics; high rates of resistant Escherichia coli and other enterobacteria were found in fresh feces of adults (n = 42) after feeding on carcasses of pigs in supplementary feeding stations of Segovia Province (Spain; 634 Blanco, G., I. López-Hernández, F. Morinha, and L. López-Cerero (2020). Intensive farming as a source of bacterial resistance to antimicrobial agents in sedentary and migratory vultures: Implications for local and transboundary spread. Science of the Total Environment 739: 140356. Close ). Management recommendations include using variable locations of the stations, managing the spatiotemporal predictability and abundance of carrion, providing small carcasses and small pieces of carrion, controlling the safety, nutritional quality, and sanitary control of carrion, and use of multiple small and dispersed stations (309 Duriez, O., S. Herman, and F. Sarrazin (2012). Intra-specific competition in foraging Griffon Vultures Gyps fulvus: 2. The influence of supplementary feeding management. Bird Study 59(2): 93–206. Close , 635 Arrondo, E., A. Cortés‐Avizanda, and J. A. Donázar (2015). Temporally unpredictable supplementary feeding may benefit endangered scavengers. Ibis 157(3): 648–651. Close , 620 Cortés-Avizanda, A., G. Blanco, T. L. DeVault, A. Markandya, M. Z. Virani, J. Brandt, and J. A. Donázar (2016). Supplementary feeding and endangered avian scavengers: benefits, caveats, and controversies. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 14(4):191–199. Close , 636 Fluhr, J., S. Benhamou, L. Riotte-Lambert, and O. Duriez (2017). Assessing the risk for an obligate scavenger to be dependent on predictable feeding sources. Biological Conservation 215:92–98. Close ).

The implementation of restrictive regulations on some contaminants since 2004 has been effective. Low concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides were found in blood samples (n = 15) of Eurasian Griffon fledglings from the Bardenas Reales de Navarra Natural Park in northern Spain (637 Muñoz-Arnanz, J., A. Cortés-Avizanda, I. Donázar-Aramendía, E. Arrondo, O. Ceballos, P. Colomer-Vidal, B. Jiménez, and J. A. Donázar (2024). Levels of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and the role of anthropic subsidies in the diet of avian scavengers tracked by stable isotopes. Environmental Pollution 343:123188. Close ). However, for other contaminants, such as poisons, it is sometimes difficult to locate the site and causes of poisoning because it has been observed that tracked Eurasian Griffon can be found dead at distances of up to 60 km from the poisoning site (638 Peshev, H., E. Mitrevichin, G. Stoyanov, A. Grozdanov, and E. Stoynov (2022). GPS tracking data relates vulture mortality due to acute intoxication at a considerable distance from the site of poisoned bait consumption. Forensic Science International: Animals and Environments 2:100052. Close ).

Damages caused to livestock by the Eurasian Griffon should be diligently checked and their owners promptly compensated by the authorities. In Cataluña Region (Spain), 22% of farmer complaints on conflict between Eurasian Griffon and livestock were compensated (537 Oliva-Vidal, P., A. Hernández-Matías, D. García, M. A. Colomer, J. Real, and A. Margalida (2022). Griffon vultures, livestock and farmers: unraveling a complex socio-economic ecological conflict from a conservation perspective. Biological Conservation 272:109664. Close ).

Some of the reintroduced populations in France were successful (e.g., Grand Causses, Baronnies, and Verdon), but others failed (e.g., Navacelles, Diois); these differences are probably related to different dispersal patterns among release sites (235 Le Gouar, P., A. Robert, J. P. Choisy, S. Henriquet, P. Lecuyer, C. Tessier, and F. Sarrazin (2008). Roles of survival and dispersal in reintroduction success of griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus). Ecological Applications 18(4): 859–872. Close ). Dispersal behavior should be considered when planning reintroduction projects, especially because conspecific attraction favored recruitment in the largest and nearest colonies (238 Sarrazin, F., C. Bagnolini, J. L. Pinna, and E. Danchin (1996). Breeding biology during establishment of a reintroduced Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus population. Ibis 138: 315–325. Close , 235 Le Gouar, P., A. Robert, J. P. Choisy, S. Henriquet, P. Lecuyer, C. Tessier, and F. Sarrazin (2008). Roles of survival and dispersal in reintroduction success of griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus). Ecological Applications 18(4): 859–872. Close ). It has also been recommended that reintroductions should use adults that have bred in captivity within the reintroduction area rather than juveniles or immatures. Adults that have bred in captivity and were released in Grand Causses (France) had higher survival rates, and were less likely to disperse than juveniles or immatures (639 Sarrazin, F., C. Bagnolini, J. L. Pinna, E. Danchin, and J. Clobert (1994). High Survival Estimates of Griffon Vultures (Gyps fulvus fulvus) in a Reintroduced Population. The Auk 111(4): 853–862. Close ). In Israel, higher survival rates were observed when reintroduced birds were reared by adult vultures compared to individuals that were hand reared; higher survival rates were also noted when birds were released in summer compared with birds released in winter (109 Efrat, R., O. Hatzofe, Y. Miller, and O. Berger-Tal (2020). Determinants of survival in captive-bred Griffon Vultures Gyps fulvus after their release to the wild. Conservation Science and Practice 2: e308. Close ). A study conducted in Sardinia (Italy) showed that the longer the acclimatization period was before release, the higher the survival rates. The number of individuals that reached sexual maturity was higher (71.4%) in 14-month-old aviary-acclimated birds than in 3-month-old acclimated (40%) or released birds without acclimation (28.6%; 640 Fozzi, I., R. Brogi, S. Cavazza, R. Chirichella, D. De Rosa, M. Aresu, J. Cerri, M. Apollonio, and F. Berlinguer (2023). Insights on the best release strategy from post-release movements and mortality patterns in an avian scavenger. iScience 26: 106699. Close ). In Kresna Gorge (Bulgaria), where birds were reintroduced beginning in 2010, six pairs built nests and laid two eggs in 2015, though these nests failed (625 Peshev, H., E. Stoynov, A. Grozdanov, and N. Vangelova (2016). Re-introduction of Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus in Kresna Gorge of Struma River, Bulgaria, Annual Report 2015. Fund for Wild Flora and Fauna, Blagoevgrad, Bulagaria. Close ).

In Cádiz Province (Spain), Eurasian Griffon mortality in wind farms was reduced by over 92 % through selective turbine stopping protocols, which were associated with only an estimated loss of less than 0.51 % in energy production (641 Ferrer, M., A. Alloing, R. Baumbush, and V. Morandini (2022). Significant decline of Griffon Vulture collision mortality in wind farms during 13-year of a selective turbine stopping protocol. Global Ecology and Conservation 38:e02203. Close ). It has been suggested that the Eurasian Griffon may become habituated to the presence of wind farms and would actively avoid the turbines (642 Farfán-Aguilar, M. A., F. Díaz-Ruiz, F., J. Duarte, J., A. Martín-Taboada, and A. Roman-Muñoz (2023). Wind farms and Griffon Vultures: Evidence that under certain conditions history is not-always turbulent. Global Ecology and Conservation 48:e02728 Close , 643 Farfán, M. Á., F. Díaz-Ruiz, J. Duarte, A. Martín-Taboada, and A. R. Muñoz (2024). Habituation and coexistence of Griffon Vultures in wind farms: A reply to Duriez et al. Global Ecology and Conservation 54:e03074. Close ; but see 644 Duriez, O., A. Camiña-Cardenal, Y. Sassi, C. Blary, T. Chambert, C. Ballester, A. Besnard, and A. Millon (2024). Wind farms and griffon vultures: No evidence for habituation and coexistence, a reply to Farfàn et al. Global Ecology and Conservation 51:e02921. Close ). A study on Eurasian Griffon flight responses to wind farms conducted in the Causses (France) showed that farm avoidance was relatively limited at most sites and movements at each farm appeared to be related to the topography of the landscape (645 Sassi, Y., N. Ziletti, O. Duriez, and B. Robira (2024). Empirical and simulation data reveal a lack of avoidance of wind turbines by Gyps fulvus (Griffon Vulture). Ornithological Applications 126:duae019. Close ).

In Portugal, 63.3% (n = 50) of Eurasian Griffon admitted to the Wildlife Rehabilitation Centre of the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro from 2005 to 2022 were rehabilitated and released in the wild (471 Garcês, A., I. Pires, R. Sargo, L. Sousa, J. Prada, and F. Silva (2023). Admission Causes, Morbidity, and Outcomes in Scavenger Birds in the North of Portugal (2005–2022). Animals 13:2093. Close ). There is limited information about survival in the wild of those birds that have been treated at rehabilitation centers and released. In a sample of yearlings received at El Boticario rehabilitation center (Málaga Province, Spain), which were banded with PVC rings and released in the wild, 8.85% of them were resighted either alive or found shot (n = 113; 646 Atencia Páez, C., and S. Moreno Borrell (1996). Datos sobre el éxito en la adaptación al medio de jóvenes de Buitre leonado (Gyps fulvus) reintroducidos. In Biología y Conservación de las Rapaces Mediterráneas, 1994 (J. Muntaner and J. Mayol, Editors). Monografías, 4, Sociedad Española de Ornitología, Madrid, Spain. pp. 411–414. Close ).

In addition to the benefits of conservation measures to Eurasian Griffon populations, these measures also benefit human communities. For example, the potential annual benefit from visits to view the Eurasian Griffon at Gamla Nature Reserve, Israel, was estimated at USD 1.1–1.2 million (647 Becker, N., M. Inbar, O. Bahat, Y. Choresh, G. Ben-Noon, and O. Yaffe (2005). Estimating the economic value of viewing Griffon Vultures Gyps fulvus: a Travel Cost Model study at Gamla Nature Reserve, Israel. Oryx 39(4): 429–434. Close ). In the eastern Spanish Pyrenees mountains, 20 supplementary feeding sites for scavenger birds, including the Eurasian Griffon, receive visitors from Spain and multiple European countries. This scavenger-based tourism provides recreational activities for birdwatching, education, and/or photography; it has been estimated that these sites produce an average of USD 4.90 million annually, including USD 2.53 million in revenues for the local population (648 García-Jiménez, R., J. M. Pérez-García, A. Margalida, and Z. Morales-Reyes (2021). Avian scavengers' contributions to people: the cultural dimension of wildlife-based tourism. Science of the Total Environment 806:150419. Close , 649 García-Jiménez, R., Z. Morales-Reyes, J. M. Pérez-García, and A. Margalida (2021). Economic valuation of non-material contributions to people provided by avian scavengers: Harmonizing conservation and wildlife-based tourism. Ecological Economics 187:107088. Close ).

Thanks to conservation measures, the Eurasian Griffon has recovered much of its breeding range in southern Europe and Israel. See Historical Changes to the Distribution and Population Status.