Conservation and Management

The American Golden-Plover is evaluated as Least Concern by BirdLife International based on IUCN RedList Criteria. However, listing the American Golden-Plover as a “species of high concern” in the U.S. Shorebird Conservation Plan (303 Brown, S., C. Hickey, B. Harrington, and R. Gill (2001). United States Shorebird Conservation Plan. Manomet Center Conservation Sciences, Manomet, MA, USA. Close ), and as a species of “high conservation concern” in the Alaska Shorebird Conservation Plan of 2019 (304 Alaska Shorebird Group (2019). Alaska Shorebird Conservation Plan. Version III. Alaska Shorebird Group, Anchorage, AK, USA. Close ), is fully warranted because of uncertain population numbers coupled with an alarming downtrend reported by Smith et al. 2023 (see Demography and Populations: Population Status) (302 Smith, P. A., A. C. Smith, B. Andres, C. M. Francis, B. Harrington, C. Friis, R. I. G. Morrison, J. Paquet, B. Winn, S. Brown (2023). Accelerating declines of North America's shorebirds signal the need for urgent conservation action. Ornithological Applications 125:1-14. Close ).

Some early ornithologists in North America thought the American Golden-Plover and the European Golden-Plover (Pluvialis apricaria) were the same species (e.g., Catesby in 1743; see 305 McAtee, W. L. (1957). The North American birds of Mark Catesby and Eleazar Albin. Journal of the Society for the Bibliography of Natural History 3:177–194. Close ). The first scientific description of the American Golden-Plover was by Brisson in 1760 from specimens collected at Hispaniola (see 306 American Ornithologists' Union (1983). Check-list of North American Birds. 6th edition. American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, DC, USA. Close ).

Habitat Loss and Degradation

Most breeding ranges of these plovers are intact and relatively unexploited by humans. However, the effects of climate change, low growth tundra replaced by taller shrubby vegetation (shrubification) and shifts in timing of insect emergence (phenological mismatch), loom as major threats to the stability of arctic and subarctic breeding grounds (307 Lindström, A., and J. Agrell (1999). Global change and possible effects on the migration and reproduction of arctic-breeding waders. Ecological Bulletins; Animal responses to global change in the north 47:145–159. Close , 308 Callaghan, T. V., L. O. Bjorn, Y. Chernov, T. Chapin, T. R. Christensen, B. Huntley, R. A. Ims, M. Johansson, D. Jolly, S. Jonasson, N. Matveyeva, N. Panikov, W. Oechel, G. Shaver, J. Elster, I. S. Jonsdottir, K. Laine, K. Taulavuori, E. Taulavuori, and C. Zockler (2004). Responses to projected changes in climate and UV-B at the species level. Ambio 33:418–435. Close , 309 Meltofte, H., T. Piersma, H. Boyd, B. McCaffery, B. Ganter, V. V. Golovnyuk, K. Graham, C. L. Gratto-Trevor, R. I. G. Morrison, E. Nol, H.-U. Röesner, D. Schamel, H. Schekkerman, M. Y. Soloviev, P. S. Tomkovich, D. M. Tracy, I. Tulp, and L. Wennerberg (2007). Effects of climate variation on the breeding ecology of Arctic shorebirds. Meddelelser om Grønland, Bioscience 59:1–48. Close , 310 Wauchope, H. S., J. D. Shaw, O. Varpe, E. G. Lappo, D. Boertmann, R. B. Lanctot, and R. A. Fuller (2017). Rapid climate-driven loss of breeding habitat for Arctic migratory birds. Global Change Biology 23:1085–1094. Close , 311 Shaftel, R., D.J., Rinella, E. Kwon, S. Broan, H.R. Gates, S.J. Kendall, D.B. Lank, J.R. Liebezeit, D.C. Payer, J. Rausch, S.T. Saalfeld, B.K. Sandercock, P.A. Smith, D. Ward, R.B. Lanctot (2021). Predictors of invertebrate biomass and rate of advancement of invertebrate phenology across eight sites in the North American Arctic. Polar Biology 44: 1-21. Close ). Increasingly, there are potentially negative impacts from human infrastructure on important nesting grounds (312 Fuller, T., Morton, D.P. and Sarkar, S. (2008). Incorporating uncertainty about species’ potential distributions under climate change into the selection of conservation areas with a case study from the Arctic Coastal Plain of Alaska. Biological Conservation. 141: 1547–1559. Close , 313 Liebezeit, J. R., S. J. Kendall, S. Brown, C. B. Johnson, P. Martin, T. L. McDonald, D. C. Payer, C. L. Rea, B. Streever, A. M. Wildman, and S. Zack (2009). Influence of human development and predators on nest survival of tundra birds, Arctic Coastal Plain, Alaska. Ecological Applications 19:1628–1644. Close ).

Overwintering ranges and migratory routes are variously threatened by unfavorable agricultural practices (expansion, intensification, drainage, agrichemicals), conversion of nonbreeding habitat to other uses (e.g., grasslands to row crops, residential development), reclamation, and other anthropogenic pressures (106 Clay, R. P., A. J. Lesterhuis, and O. Johnson (2010). Conservation plan for the American Golden-Plover (Pluvialis dominica). Version 1.1. Manomet Center Conservation Science, Manomet, MA, USA. Close , 129 Azpiroz, A. B., J. P. Isacch, R. A. Dias, A. S. Di Giacomo, C. S. Fontana, and C. M. Palarea (2012). Ecology and conservation of grassland birds in southeastern South America: A review. Journal of Field Ornithology 83:217–246. Close , 62 Stodola, K. W., B. J. O'Neal, M. G. Alessi, J. L. Deppe, T. R. Dallas, T. A. Beveroth, T. J. Benson, and M. P. Ward (2014). Stopover ecology of American Golden-Plovers (Pluvialis dominica) in Midwestern agricultural fields. Condor 116:162–172. Close , 314 Watts, B. D., E. T. Reed, and C. Turrin (2015). Estimating sustainable mortality limits for shorebirds using the Western Atlantic Flyway. Wader Study 122:37–53. Close , 315 Watts, B. D., and C. Turrin (2016). Assessing hunting policies for migratory shorebirds throughout the Western Hemisphere. Wader Study 123:6–15. Close ). Studies on the overwintering range in Argentina (117 Blanco, D. E., R. Banchs, and P. Canevari (1993). Critical sites for the Eskimo Curlew (Numenius borealis), and other Nearctic grassland shorebirds in Argentina and Uruguay. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC, USA. Close , 133 Blanco, D. E. (1998). Habitat use by three shorebird species (Pluvialis dominica, Limosa haemastica and Calidris fuscicollis) in relation to tide in Punta Rasa, Argentina. Revista Chilena De Historia Natural 71:87–94. Close , 128 Blanco, D. E., R. B. Lanctot, J. P. Isacch, and V. A. Gill (2004). Temperate grasslands of southern South America as habitat for migratory shorebirds. Ornitología Neotropical 15:159–167. Close ) indicate that plovers tend to avoid agricultural areas and concentrate instead on “flooding pampa” lowlands grazed by cattle. Any modification of these lands (economic conditions that might eventually favor drainage and conversion to cropland) would have serious impacts on this species. Also, intertidal areas are often important feeding grounds, and some coastal overwintering populations in the region are threatened by urbanization and tourism. The American Golden-Plover is clearly less able than the Pacific Golden-Plover (Pluvialis fulva) to coexist with humans during the nonbreeding season (see 137 Johnson, O. W., P. G. Connors, and P. Pyle (2018). Pacific Golden-Plover (Pluvialis fulva), version 3.0. In The Birds of North America (P. G. Rodewald, Editor). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, New York, USA. Close ).

Azpiroz et al. (129 Azpiroz, A. B., J. P. Isacch, R. A. Dias, A. S. Di Giacomo, C. S. Fontana, and C. M. Palarea (2012). Ecology and conservation of grassland birds in southeastern South America: A review. Journal of Field Ornithology 83:217–246. Close ) suggested that the species is declining on overwintering grounds in southeastern South America. Loss of habitat, particularly on the overwintering range (see Habitat​:​ Habitat in Nonbreeding Range), likely has ruled out any possibility of recovery to pre-exploitation levels.

Shooting and Trapping

The American Golden-Plover has the dubious honor of at least 52 local and regional folk names in the U.S. and Canada (316 McAtee, W. L. (1923). Local names of migratory game birds. U.S. Department of Agriculture Miscellaneous Circular 13. Close ) among them: Bullhead, Field Plover, Greenback, Muddy-belly (fall adult), Pale-breast (juvenile), and Prairie Pigeon. The long list mostly commemorates the unfortunate popularity of this bird with 19th century gunners. A major population decline was caused by excessive sport and market hunting during the 1800s and early 1900s (317 Osgood, F. (1890). Shore bird shooting on the New England coast, Part 5. Shooting and Fishing 8:513–514. Close , 183 Cooke, W. W. (1910). Distribution and migration of North American shorebirds. U.S. Department of Agriculture Biological Survey Bulletin 35. Close , 318 Forbush, E. H. (1916). A History of the Game Birds, Wild-fowl and Shore Birds of Massachusetts and Adjacent States. Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, Boston, MA, USA. Close , 319 Forbush, E. H. (1929). Birds of Massachusetts and Other New England States, Part 3: Land Birds from Sparrows to Thrushes. Massachusetts Department of Agriculture, Boston, Massachusetts, USA. Close , 145 Wetmore, A. (1927). Our migrant shorebirds in southern South America. U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin 26. Close , 203 Bent, A. C. (1929). Life histories of North American shorebirds, Part 2. United States National Museum Bulletin 146. Close , 205 Mackay, G. H. (1929). Shooting journal of George Henry Mackay 1865–1922. Cosmos Press, Cambridge, MA, USA. Close , 320 Allen, A. A. (1934c). The golden plover. Bird-Lore 36:321–332. Close ). Large numbers were killed in North America, especially during mid-continental spring migrations. There are estimates that 48,000 were shot in a single day near New Orleans, Louisiana, in spring 1821 (J. J. Audubon in 203 Bent, A. C. (1929). Life histories of North American shorebirds, Part 2. United States National Museum Bulletin 146. Close ); 9,000 were received by Boston game dealers in the spring of 1890 (extrapolated from 210 Mackay, G. H. (1891). The habits of the Golden Plover (Charadrius dominicus) in Massachusetts. Auk 8:17–24. Close ); and birds were sold “for 25¢ a dozen,” many spoiling before being sold, in the early 1850s in Portland, Maine (321 Palmer, R. S. (1949). Maine Birds. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University 102:1–579. Close ), representative of the devastating effects of market hunting on this species.

The American Golden-Plover was also hunted on its South American overwintering range (48 Dabbene, R. (1920). Notas sobre los chorlos de Norte América que invernan en la República Argentina. Hornero 2:99–128. Close , 49 Hudson, W. H. (1920) Birds of La Plata. Volume 1. Dent & Sons, London, United Kingdom. Close , 145 Wetmore, A. (1927). Our migrant shorebirds in southern South America. U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin 26. Close ). The impact there is somewhat uncertain (see 106 Clay, R. P., A. J. Lesterhuis, and O. Johnson (2010). Conservation plan for the American Golden-Plover (Pluvialis dominica). Version 1.1. Manomet Center Conservation Science, Manomet, MA, USA. Close ), but apparently much less than in North America (322 Canevari, P., and D. E. Blanco (1994). Literature search for the Eskimo Curlew. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Conservation International, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Close ). The population rebounded significantly after most hunting ended around 1900. Hunting of the American Golden-Plover in North America was officially terminated by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918. There is limited evidence of subsequent population stability, as numbers overwintering in eastern Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, showed no evidence of further decline over the 1927–1962 period (323 Olrog, C. C. (1967). Observations on migratory birds from the northern hemisphere (in Spanish). Hornero 10:292–298. Close ). Isacch and Martinez (148 Isacch, J. P., and M. M. Martínez (2003b). Temporal variation in abundance and the population status of non-breeding Nearctic and Patagonian shorebirds in the flooding pampa grasslands of Argentina. Journal of Field Ornithology 74:233–242. Close ), working at Medaland Ranch (an important Argentine overwintering site), witnessed a plover population from 1996–2000 of similar size to that recorded in earlier years by Myers and Myers (147 Myers, J. P., and L. P. Myers (1979). Shorebirds of coastal Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. Ibis 121:186–200. Close ). To what extent the foregoing hints of stability apply elsewhere on the overwintering range is unknown.

The American Golden-Plover is protected by law or otherwise unexploited in almost all of the Western Hemisphere. However, hunting of this plover still occurs in the Caribbean islands, including Barbados (324 Wege, D. C., W. Burke and E. T. Reed. (2014). Migratory shorebirds in Barbados: Hunting, management and conservation. BirdLife International. Close ), Guadeloupe, and others (106 Clay, R. P., A. J. Lesterhuis, and O. Johnson (2010). Conservation plan for the American Golden-Plover (Pluvialis dominica). Version 1.1. Manomet Center Conservation Science, Manomet, MA, USA. Close , 315 Watts, B. D., and C. Turrin (2016). Assessing hunting policies for migratory shorebirds throughout the Western Hemisphere. Wader Study 123:6–15. Close ). Although this traditional activity gives incentive to preserve otherwise threatened wetlands (C. Faanes, personal communication; 106 Clay, R. P., A. J. Lesterhuis, and O. Johnson (2010). Conservation plan for the American Golden-Plover (Pluvialis dominica). Version 1.1. Manomet Center Conservation Science, Manomet, MA, USA. Close , 324 Wege, D. C., W. Burke and E. T. Reed. (2014). Migratory shorebirds in Barbados: Hunting, management and conservation. BirdLife International. Close ), the negative impact on plovers may be very significant (see Demography and Populations: Population Status). Mortality from indigenous subsistence harvest in Alaska (mostly eggs, see 325 Naves, L.C., J.M. Keating, T.L. Tibbitts, and D.R. Ruthrauff (2019). Shorebird subsistence harvest and indigenous knowledge in Alaska: Informing harvest management and engaging users in shorebird conservation. Condor 121:1-19. Close ) appears to be an insignificant factor, but needs further study.

Pesticides and Other Contaminants/Toxins

Pesticide exposure occurs on the overwintering grounds and along migratory routes. Feeding in rice fields may be particularly hazardous (see 132 Blanco, D. E., B. López-Lanús, R. A. Dias, A. Azpiroz, and F. Rilla (2006). Use of rice fields by migratory shorebirds in southern South America: Implications for conservation and management. Wetlands International, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Close ). In the 1970s, a pooled sample of eight birds collected on the Seward Peninsula (unclear if these birds were the American Golden-Plover, the Pacific Golden-Plover, or both) contained relatively high levels of DDE and PCBs (326 Walker, W. (1977). Chlorinated hydrocarbon pollutants in Alaska Gyrfalcons and their prey. Auk 94:442–447. Close ). Limited subsequent sampling was less alarming: five American Golden-Plover collected on breeding grounds at Rankin Inlet, Nunavut contained low levels of DDE, dieldrin, heptachlor, and PCBs (327 Court, G. S., C. C. Gates, D. A. Boag, J. D. MacNeil, D. M. Bradley, A. C. Fesser, J. R. Patterson, G. B. Stenhouse, and L. W. Oliphant (1990). A toxicological assessment of Peregrine Falcons, Falco peregrinus tundrius, breeding in the Keewatin District of the Northwest Territories, Canada. Canadian Field-Naturalist 104:255–272. Close ); eight birds at Churchill, Manitoba, were low in DDT, DDE, dieldrin, mirex, PCBs, mercury, cadmium, selenium, and arsenic (328 Braune, B. M., and D. G. Noble (2009). Environmental contaminants in Canadian shorebirds. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 148(1–4):185–204. Close ); and 13 eggs from three sites in Alaska contained organic and inorganic contaminants, but at low levels these are unlikely to “affect the survival of individuals and consequently regulate the species at the population level” (329 Saalfeld, D. T., A. C. Matz, B. J. McCaffery, O. W. Johnson, P. Bruner, and R. B. Lanctot (2016). Inorganic and organic contaminants in Alaskan shorebird eggs. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 188:276. Close ). Blood levels of mercury are relatively low in plovers nesting at Utqiagvik, Alaska, but of possible concern “when combined with other ecological stressors, such as habitat loss, predation, disturbance, and climate change” (330 Perkins, M., L. Ferguson, R. B. Lanctot, I. J. Stenhouse, S. Kendall, S. Brown, H. R. Gates, J. O. Hall, K. Regan, and D. C. Evers (2016). Mercury exposure and risk in breeding and staging Alaskan shorebirds. Condor 118:571–582. Close ). No DDT-associated eggshell thinning was found in golden-plover eggs (species uncertain) from Alaska (331 Morrison, M. L., and L. F. Kiff (1979). Eggshell thickness in American shorebirds before and since DDT. Canadian Field-Naturalist 93:187–190. Close ). Strum et al. (332 Strum, K. M., M. Alfaro, B. Haase, M. J. Hooper, K. A. Johnson, R. B. Lanctot, A. J. Lesterhuis, L. López, A. C. Matz, C. Morales, B. Paulson, B. K. Sandercock, J. Torres-Dowdall, and M. E. Zaccagnini (2008). Plasma cholinesterases for monitoring pesticide exposure in Nearctic-Neotropical migratory shorebirds. Ornitología Neotropical 19(Suppl.):641–651. Close ) measured plasma cholinesterase in healthy specimens of the American Golden-Plover as a means to establish baseline values against which to measure possible cholinesterase-inhibiting effects of organophosphate and carbamate pesticides. Subsequent sampling of plovers in South America “did not show evidence of exposure” (333 Strum, K. M., M. J. Hooper, K. A. Johnson, R. B. Lanctot, M. E. Zaccagnini, and B. K. Sandercock (2010). Exposure of nonbreeding migratory shorebirds to cholinesterase-inhibiting contaminants in the Western Hemisphere. Condor 112:15–28. Close ).

Collisions with Stationary/Moving Structures

The species faces potentially harmful effects from the erection of wind turbines (wind farms) along continental migration pathways. Notably, a major spring stopover site for the plover in Benton County, Indiana (see Movements and Migration: Migratory Behavior) is also the site of a massive wind farm development (106 Clay, R. P., A. J. Lesterhuis, and O. Johnson (2010). Conservation plan for the American Golden-Plover (Pluvialis dominica). Version 1.1. Manomet Center Conservation Science, Manomet, MA, USA. Close ). Studies of plover behavior during stopover in the area suggested that turbines were causing only "limited avoidance," insofar as use of fields was concerned, but researchers cautioned that findings were tentative (334 Homoya, W., J. W. Moore, P. J. Ruhl, and J. B. Dunning (2017). Do American Golden-Plovers (Pluvialis dominica) avoid wind-energy turbines in agricultural fields in Indiana during spring migration? Wilson Journal of Ornithology 129:863–871. Close ).

Conservation Measures and Habitat Management

Of the various threats mentioned above, probably the most significant is on the breeding grounds where Wauchope et al. (310 Wauchope, H. S., J. D. Shaw, O. Varpe, E. G. Lappo, D. Boertmann, R. B. Lanctot, and R. A. Fuller (2017). Rapid climate-driven loss of breeding habitat for Arctic migratory birds. Global Change Biology 23:1085–1094. Close ) predict that warming climate will cause up to 64% loss of suitable nesting habitat by 2070 (also see 335 Galbraith, H., R. Jones, R. Park, J. Clough, S. Herrod-Julius, B. Harrington, and G. Page (2002). Global climate change and sea level rise: Potential losses of intertidal habitat for shorebirds. Waterbirds 25:173–183. Close , 336 Galbraith, H., D. W. DesRochers, S. Brown, and J. M. Reed (2014). Predicting vulnerabilities of North American shorebirds to climate change. PLoS ONE 9:e108899. Close ). A conservation plan has been developed for the species by Clay et al. (106 Clay, R. P., A. J. Lesterhuis, and O. Johnson (2010). Conservation plan for the American Golden-Plover (Pluvialis dominica). Version 1.1. Manomet Center Conservation Science, Manomet, MA, USA. Close ).