Conservation and Management

Not globally threatened (Least Concern), but declining. See Demography and Populations: Population Status: Trends.

Habitat Loss and Degradation

In portions of its range, the Eurasian Hoopoe has suffered from the loss of suitable nesting sites due to the removal of old rotting trees and/or the decline of primary cavity nesters, mainly woodpeckers (31 Krištín, A., and G. M. Kirwan (2020). Eurasian Hoopoe (Upupa epops), version 1.0. In Birds of the World (J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott, J. Sargatal, D. A. Christie, and E. de Juana, Editors). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA. Close ). Moreover, in alternative breeding sites, such as in stone walls, broods seem to suffer from increased predation (24 Martín-Vivaldi, M., J. J. Palomino, M. Soler, and J. J. Soler (1999). Determinants of reproductive success in the Hoopoe Upupa epops, a hole-nesting non-passerine bird with asynchronous hatching. Bird Study 46:205–216. Close ). This has been partly countered by nestbox programs in places such as Switzerland and Germany (158 Schaub, M., T. S. Reichlin, F. Abadi, M. Kéry, L. Jenni, and R. Arlettaz (2012). The demographic drivers of local population dynamics in two rare migratory birds. Oecologia 168:97–108. Close , 202 Gedeon, K., C. Grüneberg, A. Mitschke, C. Sudfeldt, W. Eikhorst, S. Fischer, M. Flade, S. Frick, I. Geiersberger, B. Koop, M. Kramer, T. Krüger, N. Roth, T. Ryslavy, S. Stübing, S. R. Sudmann, S. Steffens, F. Vökler, and K. Witt (2014). Atlas Deutscher Brutvogelarten [Atlas of German Breeding Birds]. Stiftung Vogelmonitoring Deutschland und Dachverband Deutscher Avifaunisten, Münster, Germany. Close ). Nestboxes may modify the ecological constraints suffered by populations that use natural holes, mainly reducing the risk of predation and increasing clutch size (210 Nilsson, S. G. (1984). The evolution of nest-site selection among hole-nesting birds: the importance of nest predation and competition. Ornis Scandinavica 15:167–175. Close , 211 Moller, A. P. (1989). Parasites, predators and nest boxes: facts and artefacts in nest box studies of birds? Oikos 56:421–423. Close , 212 Purcell, K. L., J. Verner and L. W. Oring. (1997). A comparison of the breeding ecology of birds nesting in boxes and tree cavities. Auk 114:646-656. Close ). In Europe, intensifying agriculture and the mechanical treatment of soil in agricultural areas has negatively impacted the abundance of the European mole cricket (Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa), an important prey item (213 Schmid, H., M. Burkhardt, V. Keller, P. Knaus, B. Volet, and N. Zbinden (2001). Die Entwicklung der Vogelwelt in der Schweiz. Avifauna Report Sempach 1. Anhang, Germany. Close , 132 Schaad, M. (2002). Influence of weather conditions on chick provisioning activity in the Hoopoe (Upupa e. epops). Ph.D. thesis, University of Bern, Bern, Germany. Close ). However, in both Israel and Arabia (which are naturally too arid to host breeding Eurasian Hoopoe), agriculture has increased the species' range and population (75 Shirihai, H. (1996). The Birds of Israel: A Complete Avifauna and Bird Atlas of Israel. Academic Press, London, UK. Close , 43 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission & Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia & Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ).

Effects of Invasive Species

The Rose-ringed Parakeet (Psittacula krameri) has been introduced into Israel, where it competes with the Eurasian Hoopoe for nest holes (203 Yosef, R., P. Zduniak, and M. Zmihorski (2016). Invasive ring-necked parakeet negatively affects indigenous Eurasian hoopoe. Annales Zoologici Fennici 53:281–287. Close ). The Rose-ringed Parakeet was first found nesting in southern Israel in 2002 in a date (Phoenix dactylifera) grove; subsequently, the breeding density of Eurasian Hoopoe dropped from circa 1.8 pairs/ha to nearly zero from 2001–2009 at one date grove and from 1.2 to 0.4 birds/ha at another (203 Yosef, R., P. Zduniak, and M. Zmihorski (2016). Invasive ring-necked parakeet negatively affects indigenous Eurasian hoopoe. Annales Zoologici Fennici 53:281–287. Close ).

Hunting and Trapping

The Eurasian Hoopoe is hunted or simply shot in parts of the Mediterranean region, Kuwait, and in parts of southeastern Asia (43 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission & Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia & Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close , 31 Krištín, A., and G. M. Kirwan (2020). Eurasian Hoopoe (Upupa epops), version 1.0. In Birds of the World (J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott, J. Sargatal, D. A. Christie, and E. de Juana, Editors). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA. Close ). In Israel, where hunting/shooting the Eurasian Hoopoe is illegal, hunting by guest workers has been considered a problem (214 Yom-Tov, Y. (2003). Poaching of Israeli wildlife by guest workers. Biological Conservation 110(1):11–20. Close ). However, very little information seems to exist on the extent of these activities elsewhere.

Pesticides and Other Contaminants/Toxics

The use of pesticides in Europe would be expected to decreased European mole crickets populations, and important part of the diet of the Eurasian Hoopoe (215 Harz, K. (1957). Die Geradflügler Mitteleuropas. Fischer, Jena, Germany. Close , 132 Schaad, M. (2002). Influence of weather conditions on chick provisioning activity in the Hoopoe (Upupa e. epops). Ph.D. thesis, University of Bern, Bern, Germany. Close ), but the extent of this affect is unknown. A study in Punjab, India found that levels of lead, zinc, and cadmium all increased in the feathers of nestlings between 7–35 d after hatching, likely from being fed insects that had consumed these heavy metals. Mean levels of lead in the feathers rose from 300 ppm/g to 3,000 ppm/g; mean levels of zinc rose from 200 ppm/g to 1,000 ppm/g; and the mean levels of cadmium rose from 100 ppm/g to 700 ppm/g between days 7 and 35 (216 Kaur, S. (1989). Accumulation of lead, zinc and cadmium in the nestling feathers of Hoopoe Upupa epops. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 86(2):244–245. Close ). The effects of these heavy metal concentrations on the nestlings was not directly tested, but excessive amounts of these heavy metals in other organisms has been shown to cause detrimental effects on metabolism, survival, and reproduction (216 Kaur, S. (1989). Accumulation of lead, zinc and cadmium in the nestling feathers of Hoopoe Upupa epops. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 86(2):244–245. Close ).

Collisions with Stationary/Moving Structures or Objects

Undescribed in the literature.

Human/Research Impacts

None known other than those described in above sections.

Conservation Measures and Habitat Management

Conservation measures have been enacted only at the edges of the Eurasian Hoopoe breeding range. Since 1998, a nestbox program in the Valais area of Switzerland created nest sites in an agricultural area that was quite suitable for breeding, except for the lack of nest holes. From 2002–2010, the population of Eurasian Hoopoe in Switzerland grew at a mean rate of 1.1% per year, a rise strongly correlated with juvenile survival, fecundity, and immigration (158 Schaub, M., T. S. Reichlin, F. Abadi, M. Kéry, L. Jenni, and R. Arlettaz (2012). The demographic drivers of local population dynamics in two rare migratory birds. Oecologia 168:97–108. Close ); while fecundity was greatly aided by the nestbox program (217 Arlettaz, R., M. Schaub, J. Fournier, T. S. Reichlin, A. Sierro, J. E. M. Watson, and V. Braunisch (2010). From publications to public actions: when conservation biologists bridge the gap between research and implementation. Bioscience 60:835–842. Close ), immigration was also important to the population increase, emphasizing the need for a broad rather than local perspective for population studies, and the development of wide-scale conservation actions (157 Berthier, K., F. Leippert, L. Fumagalli, and R. Arlettaz (2012). Massive nest-box supplementation boosts fecundity, survival and even immigration without altering mating and reproductive behaviour in a rapidly recovered bird population. PLoS ONE 7(4):e36028. Close , 158 Schaub, M., T. S. Reichlin, F. Abadi, M. Kéry, L. Jenni, and R. Arlettaz (2012). The demographic drivers of local population dynamics in two rare migratory birds. Oecologia 168:97–108. Close ). A nestbox program in Germany has also been successful (202 Gedeon, K., C. Grüneberg, A. Mitschke, C. Sudfeldt, W. Eikhorst, S. Fischer, M. Flade, S. Frick, I. Geiersberger, B. Koop, M. Kramer, T. Krüger, N. Roth, T. Ryslavy, S. Stübing, S. R. Sudmann, S. Steffens, F. Vökler, and K. Witt (2014). Atlas Deutscher Brutvogelarten [Atlas of German Breeding Birds]. Stiftung Vogelmonitoring Deutschland und Dachverband Deutscher Avifaunisten, Münster, Germany. Close ).

Crucial for the rapid and massive restoration of the Valais, Switzerland Eurasian Hoopoe population was the availability of a detailed, evidence-based set of conservation recommendations (77 Fournier, J., and R. Arlettaz (2001). Food provision to nestlings in the Hoopoe Upupa epops: implications for the conservation of a small endangered population in the Swiss Alps. Ibis 143(1):2–10. Close ). By identifying the lack of suitable nesting opportunities as the principal cause of decline in the study area, suitable guidelines could be generated and applied (204 Arlettaz, R., J. Fournier, and N. Zbinden (2000). Évolution démographique (1979-1998) d’une population témoin de Huppe fasciée Upupa epops en Valais et stratégie de conversation ciblée. Nos Oiseaux 47(1):19–27. Close ). Not surprisingly, the subsequent massive installation of nestboxes caused a sudden spatial shift of breeding pairs from the foothill slopes to the valley plain (217 Arlettaz, R., M. Schaub, J. Fournier, T. S. Reichlin, A. Sierro, J. E. M. Watson, and V. Braunisch (2010). From publications to public actions: when conservation biologists bridge the gap between research and implementation. Bioscience 60:835–842. Close ). The sudden close proximity of suitable breeding opportunities to optimal foraging grounds led to a significant increase in reproductive output (204 Arlettaz, R., J. Fournier, and N. Zbinden (2000). Évolution démographique (1979-1998) d’une population témoin de Huppe fasciée Upupa epops en Valais et stratégie de conversation ciblée. Nos Oiseaux 47(1):19–27. Close , 134 Arlettaz, R., M. Schaad, T. S. Reichlin, and M. Schaub (2010). Impact of weather and climate variation on Hoopoe reproductive ecology and population growth. Journal of Ornithology 151(4):889–899. Close ).

In the southwestern France, the creation of openings within or adjacent to woodlands along with provision of nestboxes has been advocated for (122 Barbaro, L., L. Couzi, V. Bretagnolle, J. Nezan, and F. Vetillard (2008). Multi-scale habitat selection and foraging ecology of the Eurasian Hoopoe (Upupa epops) in pine plantations. Biodiversity and Conservation 17:1073–1087. Close ), but no formal program has been initiated.