Breeding

In temperate zones, the Eurasian Hoopoe egg laying typically occurs during the spring and young are fledged in summer, but in tropical areas, the breeding season is focused around the wet season. Through much of its range, the Eurasian Hoopoe typically raises one brood, with a significant minority raising two (not including replacement clutches), but in some areas two broods are the norm, and rarely, three broods are raised. The size of a full clutch varies from 2–12 eggs, and mean clutch sizes range from 5.3–7.04 eggs, but these number vary greatly by location. Nest construction mainly consists of removing old debris, but often some lining is provided in the form of grasses, leaves, and/or moss. Nests are placed in preexisting cavities such as tree hollows, openings and pipes in buildings and other manmade structures, sandy banks, stone walls, and where provided, nest boxes. The openings are usually roughly 20 cm and the depth of the cavity roughly 45 cm. Nests are often reused in consecutive years, but it is unknown if the occupants are returning birds or not. The eggs are quite unusual, with a uniquely textured shell that acquires the uropygial excretions of brooding females; these secretions are antimicrobial and increase hatching success. Only the female incubates the egg and the incubation period is generally 15–18 d. Hatching is completely asynchronous in the Western Palearctic and completely synchronous in South Africa. During incubation, the male provides the female with food, and for a while, he provides all of the food for the female and chicks. As the chicks grow, the female stops brooding and both parents feed the young. Fledging occurs when the chicks are about 28-days-old.

First Brood

In Europe as a whole, eggs are laid mostly from mid-April into early July, including both first clutches, replacement clutches, and second clutches (1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). In Switzerland, the mean date for a female laying the first egg of her first clutch was 25 April ± 13 d (SD; 96 van Wijk, R. E., M. Schaub, and S. Bauer (2017). Dependencies in the timing of activities weaken over the annual cycle in a long-distance migratory bird. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 71:73. Close ), and the mean hatching date of 489 successful clutches was 30 May ± 19.7 d (SD) for females that raised only one brood, and 11 May ± 10.1 d (SD) for 269 females that later attempted a second brood (166 Hoffmann, J., E. Postma, and M. Schaub (2015). Factors influencing double brooding in Eurasian Hoopoes Upupa epops. Ibis 157(1):17–30. Close ). The peak of fledging in Switzerland was during mid-July (96 van Wijk, R. E., M. Schaub, and S. Bauer (2017). Dependencies in the timing of activities weaken over the annual cycle in a long-distance migratory bird. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 71:73. Close ). In southern Spain, the mean laying date of the first clutch was 8 April ± 19 d (SD) and that of replacement clutches was 9 May ± 16.1 d (SD; 24 Martín-Vivaldi, M., J. J. Palomino, M. Soler, and J. J. Soler (1999). Determinants of reproductive success in the Hoopoe Upupa epops, a hole-nesting non-passerine bird with asynchronous hatching. Bird Study 46:205–216. Close ). In Israel, eggs are laid in April and early May (75 Shirihai, H. (1996). The Birds of Israel: A Complete Avifauna and Bird Atlas of Israel. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ). In northern Africa, egg-laying takes place from mid-February through May (167 Heim de Balsac, H., and N. Mayaud (1962). Les Oiseaux du Nord-ouest de l'Afrique. Éditions Paul Lechevalier, Paris, France. Close ), and on the Canary Islands, eggs are laid largely in January (168 Bannerman, D. A. (1963). The Birds of the Atlantic Islands. A History of the Birds of the Canary Islands and of the Salvages. Volume 1. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh and London, UK. Close ). Breeding on the Indian Subcontinent takes place from late March to August (61 Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp, and T. Inskipp (1999). A Guide to the Birds of India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, USA. Close ). Eggs are laid from January to May in Peninsular Malaysia (7 Wells, D. R. (1999). The Birds of the Thai-Malay Peninsula. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ). In South Africa, the Eurasian Hoopoe is known to breed from July–December, but largely does so August–October (6 Maclean, G. L. (1985). Roberts' Birds of Southern Africa. Fifth edition. Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town, South Africa. Close , 2 Fry, C. H., S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors (1988). The Birds of Africa. Volume 3. Parrots to Woodpeckers. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ).

Second Brood

In southern Spain, the mean egg-laying date for a second brood was 24 May ± 18 d (SD; 24 Martín-Vivaldi, M., J. J. Palomino, M. Soler, and J. J. Soler (1999). Determinants of reproductive success in the Hoopoe Upupa epops, a hole-nesting non-passerine bird with asynchronous hatching. Bird Study 46:205–216. Close ). In Switzerland, the mean hatching date of 269 second broods was 23 June ± 11.9 d (SD; 166 Hoffmann, J., E. Postma, and M. Schaub (2015). Factors influencing double brooding in Eurasian Hoopoes Upupa epops. Ibis 157(1):17–30. Close ).

Third Brood

Known to raise three broods in Arabia, but dates not given (43 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission & Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia & Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ).

Selection Process

Males appear to select the nest site, but it is unclear how they present their chosen nest site to the female; in one instance, the male popped in and out of the intended nest hole and walked around its entrance to gain the female's attention (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ).

Site Characteristics

The Eurasian Hoopoe is a hole nester. Such nest holes are most commonly in tree hollows, but they are not infrequently in buildings (especially in/under roof and in wall crevices), pipes, stone walls, sandy banks, and when provided, nest boxes (169 Begbie, A. (1905). Nesting of the Hoopoe. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 16(3):501. Close , 170 Kubik, V. (1960). Beiträge zur Fortpflanzungs − bionomie des Wiedehopfes. Zoologické Listy 9:97−110. Close , 1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close , 6 Maclean, G. L. (1985). Roberts' Birds of Southern Africa. Fifth edition. Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town, South Africa. Close , 75 Shirihai, H. (1996). The Birds of Israel: A Complete Avifauna and Bird Atlas of Israel. Academic Press, London, UK. Close , 61 Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp, and T. Inskipp (1999). A Guide to the Birds of India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, USA. Close , 24 Martín-Vivaldi, M., J. J. Palomino, M. Soler, and J. J. Soler (1999). Determinants of reproductive success in the Hoopoe Upupa epops, a hole-nesting non-passerine bird with asynchronous hatching. Bird Study 46:205–216. Close , 132 Schaad, M. (2002). Influence of weather conditions on chick provisioning activity in the Hoopoe (Upupa e. epops). Ph.D. thesis, University of Bern, Bern, Germany. Close ). In parts of Africa, termite mounds are also used (6 Maclean, G. L. (1985). Roberts' Birds of Southern Africa. Fifth edition. Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town, South Africa. Close ). Occasionally an intrepid pair will nest in such odd places as a rabbit burrow, rolled up carpet, abandoned automobile, the below-ground cavity of a lawn sprinkler, and a hollow within a clump of epiphytes (6 Maclean, G. L. (1985). Roberts' Birds of Southern Africa. Fifth edition. Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town, South Africa. Close , 94 Gorman, G. (1996). The Birds of Hungary. Christopher Helm, London. Close , 7 Wells, D. R. (1999). The Birds of the Thai-Malay Peninsula. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Academic Press, London, UK. Close , 171 Al-Safadi, M. M. (2006). Observations on the breeding birds of the Gaza Strip, Palestine. Sandgrouse 28(1):22–33. Close , 43 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission & Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia & Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ). These holes are often rather low, within 3–4 m of the ground (170 Kubik, V. (1960). Beiträge zur Fortpflanzungs − bionomie des Wiedehopfes. Zoologické Listy 9:97−110. Close , 24 Martín-Vivaldi, M., J. J. Palomino, M. Soler, and J. J. Soler (1999). Determinants of reproductive success in the Hoopoe Upupa epops, a hole-nesting non-passerine bird with asynchronous hatching. Bird Study 46:205–216. Close , 172 Idnan, M., H. M. Jamil, A. Javid, M. H. Abbasi, M. Altaf, A. Shahzad, and A. Naeem (2019). Studies on the Reproduction and Growth of Hoopoe (Upupa epops) in District Gujrat, Punjab, Pakistan. RADS Journal of Biological Research and Applied Science 10:102–108. Close ).

Among 31 nests in Hungary, 25 were in trees, 3 in banks, and 1 was in a nest box (plus 2 unspecified); among the 25 tree nests, 5 were within 1 m of the ground, 8 were 1–2 m above the ground, 9 were 2–3 m above the ground, 2 were 3–5 m above the ground, and 1 was 12 m above the ground (170 Kubik, V. (1960). Beiträge zur Fortpflanzungs − bionomie des Wiedehopfes. Zoologické Listy 9:97−110. Close ). In Punjab, Pakistan, 33 Eurasian Hoopoe nests were found in holes in manmade structures and 32 were found in holes of trees, with the following distribution: 12 in sheesham (Dalbergia sissoo), 8 in banyan figs (Ficus benghalensis), 5 in bodhi trees (Ficus religiosa), 4 in gum arabic (Acacia [Vachellia] nilotica), 3 in mangos (Mangifera indica), 14 in building pipes, 11 along "cutting edges" of buildings, and 8 in building walls; tree nest holes were a mean of 3.3 m ± 1.43 SD above the ground, 15.9 m ± 2.62 SD from the nearest water source, and 12.1 m ± 0.21 SD from the nearest agricultural land, while wall nests were a mean of 8.9 m ± 1.40 SD above the ground, 19.5 m ± 6.41 SD from the nearest water source, and 88.3 m ± 30.12 SD from the nearest agricultural land (172 Idnan, M., H. M. Jamil, A. Javid, M. H. Abbasi, M. Altaf, A. Shahzad, and A. Naeem (2019). Studies on the Reproduction and Growth of Hoopoe (Upupa epops) in District Gujrat, Punjab, Pakistan. RADS Journal of Biological Research and Applied Science 10:102–108. Close ).

Construction Process

The actual nest site (e.g., a cavity within a tree, a crevice in a wall) are pre-existing and not excavated by the breeding pair (1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Once chosen, both parents clean out the nest site, including the removal of refuse (e.g., feces, prey remains, dead chicks) and then place any lining, such as it may be (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close , 1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ).

Structure and Composition

Some nests have no structure or lining, other than the preexisting surface (such as the bottom of a tree cavity), but some (most?) are lined with with grass, leaves, pine needles, and/or moss which are fashioned into a shallow saucer (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close , 1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close , 7 Wells, D. R. (1999). The Birds of the Thai-Malay Peninsula. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ).

Dimensions

In Punjab, Pakistan, tree nests had a mean hole diameter of 19.4 cm ± 2.32 SD and mean cavity depth of 40.4 cm ± 2.53 SD, while those in the walls of buildings had a mean hole diameter of 23.2 cm ± 9.0 SD and mean cavity depth of 46.4 cm ± 13.74 SD (172 Idnan, M., H. M. Jamil, A. Javid, M. H. Abbasi, M. Altaf, A. Shahzad, and A. Naeem (2019). Studies on the Reproduction and Growth of Hoopoe (Upupa epops) in District Gujrat, Punjab, Pakistan. RADS Journal of Biological Research and Applied Science 10:102–108. Close ). A nest cavity in a South African termite mound was 46 cm long, 30 cm wide, and 23 cm high, while the actual nest within a tree in South Africa was 1.3 cm deep and 13 cm across (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ). A nest cavity in India was about 0.6 m long in the stump of a dead tree branch (169 Begbie, A. (1905). Nesting of the Hoopoe. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 16(3):501. Close ).

Microclimate

In South Africa, the temperature within a tree cavity nest was measured and compared to outside temperatures: On a sunny day during which the outside temperature was 41.1^oC in the shade and 56.1^oC in the sun, the temperature in the nest hole was 32.5^oC, while on a cloudy day when the outside temperature outside was 5.6^oF, the temperature in the nest hole was 7.8^oF (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ).

Maintenance or Reuse of Nests

Nest maintenance is minimal. Egg shells, feces, and remaining bits of prey items are not removed from the nest (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ), and if a chick dies in the nest, it is left there by the adults and not removed (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close , 24 Martín-Vivaldi, M., J. J. Palomino, M. Soler, and J. J. Soler (1999). Determinants of reproductive success in the Hoopoe Upupa epops, a hole-nesting non-passerine bird with asynchronous hatching. Bird Study 46:205–216. Close ). Nest sites are often reused for a second brood within a given year, in which case one or both of the initial parents are involved; they are also reused over a period of years, but it is unclear whether or not they are utilized by a previous occupant or not (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close , 43 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission & Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia & Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ).

Nonbreeding Nests

Information is needed.

Shape

Eggs have been reported as sub-elliptical for Epops upupa longirostris in Malaysia (7 Wells, D. R. (1999). The Birds of the Thai-Malay Peninsula. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ) and as elliptical for the nominate subspecies in the Western Palearctic (1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ).

Size

The mean size of 73 eggs in southern Africa (Epops upupa africana) was 25.3 x 17.2 mm, with a range of 22.2–27.6 x 15.8–18.5 mm (6 Maclean, G. L. (1985). Roberts' Birds of Southern Africa. Fifth edition. Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town, South Africa. Close ). In Hungary (Upupa epops eppos), the mean size of 124 eggs was 26 x 18 mm, with a range of 23–29 x 16–19 mm (170 Kubik, V. (1960). Beiträge zur Fortpflanzungs − bionomie des Wiedehopfes. Zoologické Listy 9:97−110. Close ), while in Palestine the eggs of Epops upupa upupa ranged from 24.5–26 mm × 17.5–19 mm (171 Al-Safadi, M. M. (2006). Observations on the breeding birds of the Gaza Strip, Palestine. Sandgrouse 28(1):22–33. Close ). In Malaysia (Epops upupa longirostris), the size of 5 eggs was 25.1–25.6 x 17.9 mm (7 Wells, D. R. (1999). The Birds of the Thai-Malay Peninsula. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ), and in Tibet, eggs of Upupa epops ceylonensis ranged from 25.1–28.0 mm × 16.9–18.7 mm (83 Lu, X., D. Ke, X. Ma, G. Gong, and T. Yu (2010). Nesting records of 258 bird species in Lhasa region, Tibet. Chinese Birds 1(3):167–174. Close ). In India, egg size ranged from 22.1–23.4 x 16.3–17.0 mm (n = 5 eggs; 169 Begbie, A. (1905). Nesting of the Hoopoe. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 16(3):501. Close ).

Mass

In Hungary (nominate subspecies), the mean mass of 15 eggs was 4.45 g (170 Kubik, V. (1960). Beiträge zur Fortpflanzungs − bionomie des Wiedehopfes. Zoologické Listy 9:97−110. Close ), while those in Palestine ranged from 3.7–4.9 g (171 Al-Safadi, M. M. (2006). Observations on the breeding birds of the Gaza Strip, Palestine. Sandgrouse 28(1):22–33. Close ).

Eggshell Thickness

Information needed.

Color and Surface Texture

Eurasian Hoopoe eggs in southern Africa (Epops upupa africana) are pale blue or olive-green fading to grayish or brownish with white pores (6 Maclean, G. L. (1985). Roberts' Birds of Southern Africa. Fifth edition. Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town, South Africa. Close ); their surface texture is initally smooth but then becomes slightly rough (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ). In Malaysia (Epops upupa longirostris), eggs are very pale blue-green (7 Wells, D. R. (1999). The Birds of the Thai-Malay Peninsula. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ). In the Western Palearctic, eggs of the nominate subspecies are gray, pale yellow, or olive — sometimes pale green or brown — and they are smooth, but not glossy, and have obvious pores (1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Eggs in India were described as nearly white with only the faintest blue tinge (169 Begbie, A. (1905). Nesting of the Hoopoe. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 16(3):501. Close ).

The shell of an Eurasian Hoopoe egg is actually quite extraordinary, and differ from those of most birds, except Columbiformes, in lacking the typical organic cuticle or external inorganic layers that protect embryos against trans-shell contamination (173 Tullett, S. G. (1984). The porosity of avian eggshells. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 78:5–13. Close , 174 Sparks, N. H. C. (1994). Shell accessory materials: structure and function. In Microbiology of the Avian Egg (R. G. Board and R. Fuller, Editors), Chapman & Hall, London, United Kingdom. pp. 25–42. Close , 175 Mikhailov, K. E. (1997). Avian Eggshells: An Atlas Of Scanning Electron Micrographs. British Ornithologists' Club, Tring, United Kingdom. Close , 176 Wellman-Labadie, O., J. Picman, and M. T. Hincke (2008). Antimicrobial activity of the Anseriform outer eggshell and cuticle. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 149:640–649. Close ). Additionally, avian eggshells are usually quite smooth, with the outermost eggshell layer having a protein-hydrophobic nature (177 Becking, J. H. (1975). The ultrastructure of the avian eggs. Ibis 117:143–151. Close , 173 Tullett, S. G. (1984). The porosity of avian eggshells. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 78:5–13. Close , 175 Mikhailov, K. E. (1997). Avian Eggshells: An Atlas Of Scanning Electron Micrographs. British Ornithologists' Club, Tring, United Kingdom. Close ), but that of the Eurasian Hoopoe is full of crypts of different size and depth that end at the spongy palisade layer (i.e., they do not pierce the eggshell), a structure that has not been described for the eggs of any other bird species (178 Martín-Vivaldi, M., J. J. Soler, J. M. Peralta-Sánchez, L. Arco, A. M. Martín-Platero, M. Martínez-Bueno, M. Ruiz-Rodríguez, and E. Valdivia (2014). Special structures of hoopoe eggshells enhance the adhesion of symbiont-carrying uropygial secretion that increase hatching success. Journal of Animal Ecology 83(6):1289–1301. Close ). Those crypts allow the female's uropygial secretions to stick to the egg, secretions that result in a lower trans-shell contamination of pathogenic bacteria (e.g., Enterobacteriaceae) and greater hatching success (178 Martín-Vivaldi, M., J. J. Soler, J. M. Peralta-Sánchez, L. Arco, A. M. Martín-Platero, M. Martínez-Bueno, M. Ruiz-Rodríguez, and E. Valdivia (2014). Special structures of hoopoe eggshells enhance the adhesion of symbiont-carrying uropygial secretion that increase hatching success. Journal of Animal Ecology 83(6):1289–1301. Close ).

Clutch Size

The size of a full clutch varies from 2–12 eggs, and the mean clutch size ranges from 5.3–7.04 eggs, but these number vary greatly by location. In the Western Palearctic, the following has been found for Upupa epops epops: in Hungary the mean clutch size of 59 nests was 7.0 eggs, with a range of 5–10 (170 Kubik, V. (1960). Beiträge zur Fortpflanzungs − bionomie des Wiedehopfes. Zoologické Listy 9:97−110. Close , 179 Makatsch, W. (1976). Die Eier der Vögel Europas. Leipzig, Radebeul: Neumann Verlag. Close ); in southern Spain, the mean clutch size of 97 nests was 6.59 eggs ± 1.25 SD, with a range of range 4–12 (24 Martín-Vivaldi, M., J. J. Palomino, M. Soler, and J. J. Soler (1999). Determinants of reproductive success in the Hoopoe Upupa epops, a hole-nesting non-passerine bird with asynchronous hatching. Bird Study 46:205–216. Close ); and in Slovenia, the maximum reported clutch size is 8 (123 Podletnik, M., and D. Denac (2015). Selection of foraging habitat and diet of the Hoopoe Upupa epops in the mosaic-like cultural landscape of Goričko (NE Slovenia). Acrocephalus 36:109–132. Close ). In Egypt, the clutch size of Upupa epops major nests ranged from 4–7 eggs (180 Meinertzhagen, R. (1930). Nicoll’s Birds of Egypt. Volume 1. Hugh Rees Ltd., London, UK. Close ), and in Arabia (subspecies unclear), clutch sizes also ranged from 4–7 eggs, with a mean of 5.3 eggs per nest (43 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission & Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia & Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ). In Punjab, Pakistan (Upupa epops ceylonensis) the mean clutch size of 24 nests was 7.04 eggs ± 0.64 SD (172 Idnan, M., H. M. Jamil, A. Javid, M. H. Abbasi, M. Altaf, A. Shahzad, and A. Naeem (2019). Studies on the Reproduction and Growth of Hoopoe (Upupa epops) in District Gujrat, Punjab, Pakistan. RADS Journal of Biological Research and Applied Science 10:102–108. Close ). In Malawi (Upupa epops africana), the clutch size of 10 nests varied from 2–5, with a mean of 3.5 eggs/nest (2 Fry, C. H., S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors (1988). The Birds of Africa. Volume 3. Parrots to Woodpeckers. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ). In South Africa (Upupa epops africana), the clutch size of 9 nests, ranged from 3–7, with a mean of 5.4 eggs/nest (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close , 2 Fry, C. H., S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors (1988). The Birds of Africa. Volume 3. Parrots to Woodpeckers. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ). In southern Spain, there was no difference in the number of eggs in a first clutch, replacement clutch, or second brood (24 Martín-Vivaldi, M., J. J. Palomino, M. Soler, and J. J. Soler (1999). Determinants of reproductive success in the Hoopoe Upupa epops, a hole-nesting non-passerine bird with asynchronous hatching. Bird Study 46:205–216. Close ).

Egg-laying

In both the nominate subspecies group and Upupa epops africana, eggs are normally laid at 24 hour (rarely 48 hour) intervals (125 Bussmann, J. (1950). Zur Brutbiologie des Wiedehopfes. Der Ornithologische Beobachter 47:141–151. Close , 21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close , 121 Löhrl, H. (1977). Zum Brutverhalten des Wiedehopfes Upupa epops. Die Vogelwelt 98(2):41–58. Close , 181 Gupta, R. C., and I. Ahmad (1993). On the clutch size, egg laying schedule, hatching patterns and stay of nestlings of Indian Hoopoe (Upupa epops). Geobios 20:148–150. Close ).

Onset of Broodiness and Incubation in Relation to Laying

In the Upupa epops epops group, incubation starts immediately after the first or second egg is laid (125 Bussmann, J. (1950). Zur Brutbiologie des Wiedehopfes. Der Ornithologische Beobachter 47:141–151. Close , 21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close , 121 Löhrl, H. (1977). Zum Brutverhalten des Wiedehopfes Upupa epops. Die Vogelwelt 98(2):41–58. Close , 181 Gupta, R. C., and I. Ahmad (1993). On the clutch size, egg laying schedule, hatching patterns and stay of nestlings of Indian Hoopoe (Upupa epops). Geobios 20:148–150. Close ). Similarly, in Upupa epops africana, incubation starts immediately after the first egg is laid (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ).

Incubation Patches

Information needed.

Incubation Period

In the Western Palearctic, the typical incubation period is 15–16 d, but it can be as short as 14 d or as long as 20 d (1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), and in Africa, the incubation period ranges from 15–18 d, with the typical duration in South African being 17 d (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close , 2 Fry, C. H., S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors (1988). The Birds of Africa. Volume 3. Parrots to Woodpeckers. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ). In southern Spain, the mean incubation period among 14 clutches was 16.7 d ± 1.7 SD (24 Martín-Vivaldi, M., J. J. Palomino, M. Soler, and J. J. Soler (1999). Determinants of reproductive success in the Hoopoe Upupa epops, a hole-nesting non-passerine bird with asynchronous hatching. Bird Study 46:205–216. Close ).

Parental Behavior

Only the female incubates the eggs, and while she is incubating, the male is responsible for feeding her (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close , 1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close , 6 Maclean, G. L. (1985). Roberts' Birds of Southern Africa. Fifth edition. Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town, South Africa. Close , 2 Fry, C. H., S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors (1988). The Birds of Africa. Volume 3. Parrots to Woodpeckers. Academic Press, London, UK. Close , 24 Martín-Vivaldi, M., J. J. Palomino, M. Soler, and J. J. Soler (1999). Determinants of reproductive success in the Hoopoe Upupa epops, a hole-nesting non-passerine bird with asynchronous hatching. Bird Study 46:205–216. Close ). During incubation in Germany and Africa, males brought food ca. 5–8 times per hour to the female (130 Hirschfeld, H., and K. Hirschfeld (1973). Zur Brut- und Ernährungsbiologie des Wiedehopfes, Upupa epops L., unter Berücksichtigung seiner Verhaltensweisen. Beiträge zur Vogelkunde 19(2–3):81–152. Close ).

Hardiness of Eggs Against Temperature Stress: Effect of Egg Neglect

Information needed.

In the Upupa epops epops group, eggs normally hatch at intervals of 24 hours, producing complete hatching asynchrony (125 Bussmann, J. (1950). Zur Brutbiologie des Wiedehopfes. Der Ornithologische Beobachter 47:141–151. Close , 121 Löhrl, H. (1977). Zum Brutverhalten des Wiedehopfes Upupa epops. Die Vogelwelt 98(2):41–58. Close , 181 Gupta, R. C., and I. Ahmad (1993). On the clutch size, egg laying schedule, hatching patterns and stay of nestlings of Indian Hoopoe (Upupa epops). Geobios 20:148–150. Close ), but in South Africa, in Upupa epops africana, hatching is apparently completely synchronous (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ). Information pertaining to the hatching event of individual eggs (e.g., shell-breaking and emergence) is needed.

Condition at Hatching

Eurasian Hoopoe hatchlings are altricial and nidiculous (1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Their mass at hatching is 2.6–3.8 g (139 Heinroth, O. and M. Heinroth. (1926). Die Vögel Mitteleuropas. Vol. 1. Berlin: Lichterfelde. Close , 125 Bussmann, J. (1950). Zur Brutbiologie des Wiedehopfes. Der Ornithologische Beobachter 47:141–151. Close , 126 Münch, H. (1952). Der Wiedehopf. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Geest & Portig K.G., Leipzig, Germany. Close ). The bodies of freshly hatched chicks are pinkish-red, and the bill (which has an egg tooth attached to the culmen) is pink at its base, gray towards the tip, and has a pronounced white gape; the inside of the mouth is red and the legs are gray (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ). At hatching, there is white down around the occiput, on the scapulars, along a line on either side of the spine extending onto the rump, and on the thighs, flanks and tail (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ).

Growth and Development

In South Africa, the progression of Upupa epops africana chicks was noted by Skead (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ): day 7, eyes half-open; day 10, feathers just webbing out of quills, eyes 3/4 open; day 14, crest very noticeable; day 20, well feathered; day 29, chick fledges, gape still bright white.

The progression of Upupa epops epops chicks in Switzerland was described by Hildebrandt and Schaub (23 Hildebrandt, B., and M. Schaub (2018). The effects of hatching asynchrony on growth and mortality patterns in Eurasian Hoopoe Upupa epops nestlings. Ibis 160:145–157. Close ): tarsi — growth is quick between day 1 and day 10, but afterwards slows, and at approximately 23 d of age, growth is completed, the tarsi having reached the length of those of an adult; bill — growth almost linear until fledging at day 28, at which time the mean length is 29.7 mm ± 2.5 SD, well below the mean bill length of 44.8 mm for local adult females and 50.3 mm for local adult males; seventh (i.e., longest) primary — the growth curve of the seventh primary is sigmoidal, and at the time of fledging on day 28, its length is 89.6 mm ± 8.2 SD, which is about 80% that of an adult's.

In western Europe, Eurasian Hoopoe chicks reach a maximum weight of 75–85 g at 16–18 d, a weight that is approximately 20% greater than that of an adult, and thereafter they lose weight until fledging (at about 26 d), when they weigh 60–70 g (139 Heinroth, O. and M. Heinroth. (1926). Die Vögel Mitteleuropas. Vol. 1. Berlin: Lichterfelde. Close , 125 Bussmann, J. (1950). Zur Brutbiologie des Wiedehopfes. Der Ornithologische Beobachter 47:141–151. Close , 126 Münch, H. (1952). Der Wiedehopf. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Geest & Portig K.G., Leipzig, Germany. Close , 24 Martín-Vivaldi, M., J. J. Palomino, M. Soler, and J. J. Soler (1999). Determinants of reproductive success in the Hoopoe Upupa epops, a hole-nesting non-passerine bird with asynchronous hatching. Bird Study 46:205–216. Close ). In a study from Switzerland, the body mass increase of chicks was independent of hatching order in high-quality territories, whereas late-hatched nestlings grew more slowly than early-hatched nestlings in low-quality territories; in low-quality territories, the estimated body mass difference between a first and fifth hatched nestling at the time of fledging was 8.8 g ± 13.6 SD, but this difference in high-quality territories was only 0.7 g ± 13.4 (23 Hildebrandt, B., and M. Schaub (2018). The effects of hatching asynchrony on growth and mortality patterns in Eurasian Hoopoe Upupa epops nestlings. Ibis 160:145–157. Close ).

Sex Ratios and Sex Allocation

The sex ratio of fledglings is 1:1 (158 Schaub, M., T. S. Reichlin, F. Abadi, M. Kéry, L. Jenni, and R. Arlettaz (2012). The demographic drivers of local population dynamics in two rare migratory birds. Oecologia 168:97–108. Close ).

Brooding

Only the female is known to brood the young. In Switzerland, females typically brood the young until they are nearly fledged (85 Bötsch, Y., R. Arlettaz, and M. Schaub (2012). Breeding dispersal of Eurasian Hoopoes (Upupa epops) within and between years in relation to reproductive success, sex, and age. Auk 129(2):283−295. Close ), but in South Africa, the young are normally brooded only until they are about 7-d-old (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ).

Feeding

Prey is brought to the nest held by the tip of the parent's bill and then stuffed far into the throat of a begging chick (125 Bussmann, J. (1950). Zur Brutbiologie des Wiedehopfes. Der Ornithologische Beobachter 47:141–151. Close , 1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Typically one prey item is provided per feeding (121 Löhrl, H. (1977). Zum Brutverhalten des Wiedehopfes Upupa epops. Die Vogelwelt 98(2):41–58. Close , 77 Fournier, J., and R. Arlettaz (2001). Food provision to nestlings in the Hoopoe Upupa epops: implications for the conservation of a small endangered population in the Swiss Alps. Ibis 143(1):2–10. Close ), though exceptionally two or three items are brought to the nest together (182 Stirnemann, F. (1940). Der Wiedehopf als Hausbruter. Vogel Heimat 11:2–6. Close ). The youngest chicks are not fed until/unless larger ones are satiated (24 Martín-Vivaldi, M., J. J. Palomino, M. Soler, and J. J. Soler (1999). Determinants of reproductive success in the Hoopoe Upupa epops, a hole-nesting non-passerine bird with asynchronous hatching. Bird Study 46:205–216. Close ). The male feeds both the female and the chicks until the chicks are about 7-d-old, after which both parents feed the young until they fledge (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close , 85 Bötsch, Y., R. Arlettaz, and M. Schaub (2012). Breeding dispersal of Eurasian Hoopoes (Upupa epops) within and between years in relation to reproductive success, sex, and age. Auk 129(2):283−295. Close ). Males provided roughly 50% more food, by mass, than females in Switzerland, and males with a higher body mass:tarsus length ratio provided a higher proportion of mole crickets as prey (132 Schaad, M. (2002). Influence of weather conditions on chick provisioning activity in the Hoopoe (Upupa e. epops). Ph.D. thesis, University of Bern, Bern, Germany. Close ).

The daily feeding period is dependent on the length of daylight, ranging from about 0300–0500 h to 1900–2030 h in the Western Palearctic and throughout a 14-hour period in southern South Africa (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close , 1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Information provided by provisioning rates is tricky to interpret, as it is likely affected by the chicks' size and number as well as average prey size, not to mention prey availability. In northeastern Slovenia, the mean hourly feeding frequency was 3.0–4.2 trips/hr from 0500–1700 h and 2.0–3.0 trips/hr from 1701–2000 h, with the last feeding coming between 2000–2100 (123 Podletnik, M., and D. Denac (2015). Selection of foraging habitat and diet of the Hoopoe Upupa epops in the mosaic-like cultural landscape of Goričko (NE Slovenia). Acrocephalus 36:109–132. Close ). Near Lucerne, Switzerland, chicks were provisioned 30–50 times/d during the early nestling period, 70–80 times/d during the middle nestling period, and 40–50 times/day during the later nestling period (125 Bussmann, J. (1950). Zur Brutbiologie des Wiedehopfes. Der Ornithologische Beobachter 47:141–151. Close ). On 22 June in Germany, feeding began at 0405 h and ended at 2020 h, with the male bringing food 161 times and the female 95 times (130 Hirschfeld, H., and K. Hirschfeld (1973). Zur Brut- und Ernährungsbiologie des Wiedehopfes, Upupa epops L., unter Berücksichtigung seiner Verhaltensweisen. Beiträge zur Vogelkunde 19(2–3):81–152. Close ). In South Africa, provisioning rates were noted to range from 16–28 trips/h (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ).

In Europe, the Eurasian Hoopoe is known to forage up to 2 km from nest (125 Bussmann, J. (1950). Zur Brutbiologie des Wiedehopfes. Der Ornithologische Beobachter 47:141–151. Close , 126 Münch, H. (1952). Der Wiedehopf. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Geest & Portig K.G., Leipzig, Germany. Close , 130 Hirschfeld, H., and K. Hirschfeld (1973). Zur Brut- und Ernährungsbiologie des Wiedehopfes, Upupa epops L., unter Berücksichtigung seiner Verhaltensweisen. Beiträge zur Vogelkunde 19(2–3):81–152. Close , 1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), with the foraging range markedly related to prey abundance (1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). In northeastern Slovenia, adults foraged mostly within 400 m of their nest (123 Podletnik, M., and D. Denac (2015). Selection of foraging habitat and diet of the Hoopoe Upupa epops in the mosaic-like cultural landscape of Goričko (NE Slovenia). Acrocephalus 36:109–132. Close ), and in the maritime pine (Pinus pinaster) populations in southwestern France, the mean foraging distance was 271.5 m ± 143.0 SD from the nest (122 Barbaro, L., L. Couzi, V. Bretagnolle, J. Nezan, and F. Vetillard (2008). Multi-scale habitat selection and foraging ecology of the Eurasian Hoopoe (Upupa epops) in pine plantations. Biodiversity and Conservation 17:1073–1087. Close ).

Nest Sanitation

Nest sanitation is minimal. Nests become foul-smelling after the young hatch (6 Maclean, G. L. (1985). Roberts' Birds of Southern Africa. Fifth edition. Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town, South Africa. Close ). Egg shells, feces, and remaining bits of prey items are not removed from the nest (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ), and if a chick dies in the nest, it is not removed either (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close , 24 Martín-Vivaldi, M., J. J. Palomino, M. Soler, and J. J. Soler (1999). Determinants of reproductive success in the Hoopoe Upupa epops, a hole-nesting non-passerine bird with asynchronous hatching. Bird Study 46:205–216. Close ).

Carrying of Eggs or Young

Neither have been reported for the Eurasian Hoopoe and both seem rather unlikely.

Cooperative breeding has been noted at least once in South Africa, with the helper being a male; it is unclear if that additional male was the previous year's young, a nestmate of one member of the pair, or in some other way related (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ).

In South Africa, the Greater Honeyguide (Indicator indicator) is known to lay its eggs in Eurasian Hoopoe nests, but further details are lacking (183 Gilges, W. (1939). A contribution to the habits of the Honeyguide. Ostrich 10:130–133. Close , 184 Attwood, L., and M. Attwood (1945). Birdlife in a Johannesburg garden. Ostrich 16:208–210. Close ).

Departure from the Nest

In southern Spain, the mean time between the first chick hatching and the last chick fledging was 27.1 d ± 2.0 SD (n = 7; 24 Martín-Vivaldi, M., J. J. Palomino, M. Soler, and J. J. Soler (1999). Determinants of reproductive success in the Hoopoe Upupa epops, a hole-nesting non-passerine bird with asynchronous hatching. Bird Study 46:205–216. Close ). In earlier studies from western Europe, fledging occurred, on average, at day 28, range 26–29 (139 Heinroth, O. and M. Heinroth. (1926). Die Vögel Mitteleuropas. Vol. 1. Berlin: Lichterfelde. Close , 125 Bussmann, J. (1950). Zur Brutbiologie des Wiedehopfes. Der Ornithologische Beobachter 47:141–151. Close , 126 Münch, H. (1952). Der Wiedehopf. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Geest & Portig K.G., Leipzig, Germany. Close ). In South Africa, nestlings fledged at day 26–32 (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ). Fledging ranged from day 22–28 in Palestine (171 Al-Safadi, M. M. (2006). Observations on the breeding birds of the Gaza Strip, Palestine. Sandgrouse 28(1):22–33. Close ).

Growth

Information needed.

Association with Parents or Other Young

In Switzerland, the female leaves the family when the chicks fledge, or shortly beforehand, while the male continues to feed the chicks until they are independent (85 Bötsch, Y., R. Arlettaz, and M. Schaub (2012). Breeding dispersal of Eurasian Hoopoes (Upupa epops) within and between years in relation to reproductive success, sex, and age. Auk 129(2):283−295. Close ), but in South Africa, both parents feed the chicks until they are independent (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ).

Ability to get Around, Feed, and Care for Self

Information needed.

Little is known of the juvenile life history.