Behavior

The Eurasian Hoopoe is more than competent on foot and on the wing. It actively engages in anting, sunbathing, and sand-bathing, but may not actually bathe in water.During the breeding season, females and chicks produce a pungent, dark green secretion in their uropygial gland that may reduce the risk of predation, the activity of the feather-degrading bacterium Bacillus licheniformis, and protect eggs from trans-shell infections. Males defend their nests and attract mates with a hoop-hoop-hoop song that can sometimes be heard 1.5 km away. Physical territorial interactions often involve a threat posture, wherein the male stands erect, with his crest raised (but not fanned), wings raised and spread, and tail fanned. Rarely, but sometimes, this involves physical contact and even injury. The Eurasian Hoopoe is a non-colonial and territorial breeder that is usually monogamous. Pairs appear not to be maintained between years and, sometimes, not between first and second broods. In one study, DNA-fingerprinting revealed that 10% of broods contained offspring sired by extra-pair males. Nest predation is mostly due to the usual array of cats, rats, and snakes. Nest defense mechanisms vary from freezing, to squirting feces, to lunging beak first or hissing like a puff adder (Bitis arietans).

Walking, Running, Hopping, Climbing, etc.

The Eurasian Hoopoe is a capable walker, sometimes walking for prolonged periods of time while feeding, and occasionally running (5 Glutz von Blotzheim, U. N., and K. M. Bauer (1980). Handbuch der Vögel Mitteleuropas. Band 9 Columbiformes-Piciformes. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Wiesbaden, Germany. Close , 1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close , 6 Maclean, G. L. (1985). Roberts' Birds of Southern Africa. Fifth edition. Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town, South Africa. Close ).

Flight

Its flight, typically undulating, appears ungainly and laborious, powered by deep strokes of its broad floppy wings (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close , 6 Maclean, G. L. (1985). Roberts' Birds of Southern Africa. Fifth edition. Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town, South Africa. Close ), and few would guess that it is capable of flying for 28 h straight, as it sometimes does during migration (112 Liechti, F., S. Bauer, K. L. Dhanjal-Adams, T. Emmenegger, P. Zehtindjiev, and S. Hahn (2018). Miniaturized multi-sensor loggers provide new insight into year-round flight behaviour of small trans-Sahara avian migrants. Movement Ecology 6:1–10. Close ), or that it has a "remarkable ability" evading the attack of falcons (Falco sp.) or other birds of prey (5 Glutz von Blotzheim, U. N., and K. M. Bauer (1980). Handbuch der Vögel Mitteleuropas. Band 9 Columbiformes-Piciformes. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Wiesbaden, Germany. Close , 1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). When disturbed, it sometimes flutters moth-like up to about 10 m, where it wobbles and then drops nearly to the ground before swooping up again (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ). Upon landing, it commonly raises its crest (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close , 5 Glutz von Blotzheim, U. N., and K. M. Bauer (1980). Handbuch der Vögel Mitteleuropas. Band 9 Columbiformes-Piciformes. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Wiesbaden, Germany. Close ).

Preening, Head-Scratching, Stretching, Sunbathing, Bathing, Anting, etc.

During the breeding season, females and chicks produce two preen secretions from their uropygial gland, one that is pungent, dark green, and rich in volatile substances, and another that is white and lacks such noxious substances (146 Martín-Vivaldi, M., A. Pena, J. M. Peralta-Sánchez, L. Sánchez, S. Ananou, M. Ruiz-Rodríguez, and J. J. Soler (2010). Antimicrobial chemicals in hoopoe preen secretions are produced by symbiotic bacteria. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 277:123–130. Close ). The green secretion has been thought to reduce the risk of predation (1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close , 147 Burger, B. V., B. Reiter, O. Borzyk, and M. A. Du Plessis (2004). Avian exocrine secretions. I. Chemical characterization of the volatile fraction of the uropygial secretion of the green woodhoopoe, Phoeniculus purpureus. Journal of Chemical Ecology 30:1603–1611. Close ), and it inhibits the growth of the feather-degrading bacterium Bacillus licheniformis (148 Soler, J. J., M. Martín-Vivaldi, M. Ruiz-Rodríguez, E. Valdivia, A. M. Martín-Platero, M. Martínez-Bueno, J. M. Peralta-Sánchez, and M. Méndez (2008). Symbiotic association between hoopoes and antibiotic-producing bacteria that live in their uropygial gland. Functional Ecology 22:864–871. Close ). Indeed, it has several non-protein chemicals (e.g., phenyl acetaldehyde) as well as bacteriocins that are broadly bactericidal and are produced by a symbiotic bacteria (Enterococcus sp.) living in the uropygial gland (149 Martín-Platero, A. M., E. Valdivia, M. Ruiz-Rodríguez, J. J. Soler, M. Martín-Vivaldi, M. Maqueda, and M. Martínez-Bueno (2006). Characterization of antimicrobial substances produced by Enterococcus faecalis MRR 10–3, isolated from the uropygial gland of the hoopoe (Upupa epops). Applied and Environmental Microbiology 72:4245–4249. Close , 148 Soler, J. J., M. Martín-Vivaldi, M. Ruiz-Rodríguez, E. Valdivia, A. M. Martín-Platero, M. Martínez-Bueno, J. M. Peralta-Sánchez, and M. Méndez (2008). Symbiotic association between hoopoes and antibiotic-producing bacteria that live in their uropygial gland. Functional Ecology 22:864–871. Close , 146 Martín-Vivaldi, M., A. Pena, J. M. Peralta-Sánchez, L. Sánchez, S. Ananou, M. Ruiz-Rodríguez, and J. J. Soler (2010). Antimicrobial chemicals in hoopoe preen secretions are produced by symbiotic bacteria. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 277:123–130. Close , 150 Ruiz-Rodríguez, M., E. Valdivia, M. Martín-Vivaldi, A. M. Martín-Platero, M. Martínez-Bueno, M. Méndez, J. M. Peralta-Sanchez, and J. J. Soler (2012). Antimicrobial activity and genetic profile of enterococci isolated from hoopoes uropygial gland. PLoS ONE 7:e41843 Close , 151 Ruiz-Rodríguez, M., M. Martínez-Bueno, M. Martín-Vivaldi, E. Valdivia, and J. J. Soler (2013). Bacteriocins with a broader antimicrobial spectrum prevail in enterococcal symbionts isolated from the hoopoe's uropygial gland. Fems Microbiology Ecology 85:495–502. Close ).

The Eurasian Hoopoe (U. e. africana) is one of the few Afrotropical non-passerines known to engage in passive anting (152 Vandepitte, B. (1991). A case of “passive” anting in the Hoopoe Upupa epops. Babbler 21:79–80. Close , 153 Craig, A. J. F. K. (1999). Anting in Afrotropical birds: a review. Ostrich 70(3–4):203–207. Close ). It is unclear whether this behavior occurs in other subspecies. The Eurasian Hoopoe also seems to be fond of sunning itself; when sunning, it adopts a "spread-eagle" position, in which the bird is crouched with its wings spread wide and head held high up (often with bill slightly agape), the undertail coverts fanned, and rump feathers slightly raised (154 Fry, C. H., H. Eriksen, and J. Eriksen (1993). The Hoopoe’s spreadeagle posture: predator reaction or sunning? British Birds 86(3):121–124. Close ).

In South Africa, Skead (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ) noted that subspecies africana does not bathe in water but, instead, takes baths in sand, the typical procedure described as follows: the bird crouches on sandy ground and hollows out a depression with sideways flicks of its bill. It then shuffles into the depression while continuing to flick sand away and simultaneously slowly rotating its body while lying half on its side. It continues to rotate and shuffle until half-buried in sand and then, with three or four convulsive body-shakes and wing-beats, it showers sand over and among its ruffled feathers. This procedure is typically repeated several times, sometimes in multiple spots, with bouts up to 11 min noted (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ). This taxon less frequently takes dust baths, which resemble sand baths, but are briefer and with little penetration into the ground (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ). This behavior has been noted, albeit in less detail, in Europe as well. It is unclear, however, if the Eurasian Hoopoe ever does bathe in water.

Sleeping, Roosting

During the nonbreeding season in South Africa, birds flew up to 700 m at dusk to roost in loose groups in a wooded ravine, with no more than one bird per tree, sleeping upon perches that were often rather exposed (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ).

Daily Time Budget

Information needed.

Physical and Communicative Interactions

In Europe, most agonistic interactions are directly related to territorial behavior; see below for descriptions of such. In South Africa, where the Eurasian Hoopoe is resident, aggressive behavior can start months before courtship begins and territories are staked out; these are described below based on work by Skead (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ). From mid-April until pair formation in July–August, males sporadically fly from a feeding group to an elevated perch, sing briefly, and then return to the flock, and without provocation, attack other males present. These attacks are preceded by the male ruffling his feathers and spreading his wings, while slightly pushing his bill forward. He then runs at another male, who quietly retreats. The aggressor male sometimes pursues, and a chase ensues either on the ground or in the air after. If there is a chase, the two may fly back and forth several times or, if the pursued tries to seek shelter in a tree, the chase may continue from bough to bough. Eventually, the attacking male loses interest, and the two rejoin their flock and resume feeding as if nothing had ever happened. Well before pair formation, these interactions are relatively brief and low-intensity, but as the breeding season nears, they become more vigorous and prolonged, with the attacked sometimes defending himself rather than fleeing. During, or immediately after a chase, a male may give the "swizzle" call while bobbing its head (see Sounds and Vocal Behavior: Vocalizations). Sometimes, a male chases a female, and when that happens the interaction is somewhat similar but less aggressive.

Territorial Behavior

Males demarcate their territory by repeatedly singing hoop-hoop-hoop (varies from 2–4 notes) , typically from an elevated perch, sometimes for "many minutes" at a time; this song is audible for up to 1.5 km (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close , 1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close , 4 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Volumes 1 and 2. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA. Close ). When singing, the male adopts an upright posture, with his puffed-up neck stretched upwards or outwards, and head pointed downward, crest flattened (1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Though the song is sometimes given prior to courtship and before a territory is established (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ), it is given most persistently at the onset of the breeding season, especially when territories are close together or breeding density high, and then tapers off after nest building is complete (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close , 126 Münch, H. (1952). Der Wiedehopf. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Geest & Portig K.G., Leipzig, Germany. Close , 5 Glutz von Blotzheim, U. N., and K. M. Bauer (1980). Handbuch der Vögel Mitteleuropas. Band 9 Columbiformes-Piciformes. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Wiesbaden, Germany. Close ).

The simplest physical territorial behavior is the threat posture, wherein the male stands erect, with his crest raised (but not fanned), wings raised and spread, and tail fanned (155 Steyn, P. (1967). Threat display of the African Hoopoe Upupa africana. Ostrich 38:284-285 Close ). If a rival male does not retreat, defense can become more aggressive. Males sometimes run at each other, crests flattened (like angry cats with their ears back), while repeatedly and quickly bobbing their heads downwards; upon reaching each other, if they grapple each other, they flutter breast-to-breast and rise up to 3–4 m in the air before parting (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ). Females also engage in this breast-to-breast fighting, and can be equally aggressive towards each other, but apparently without the preliminary bobbing and crest-movements (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ). At times, the two contestants do not actual grapple with each other, but instead, facing each other, repeatedly leap up into the air while fluttering (156 Jourdain, F. C. (1911). VII.–Notes on the Ornithology of Corsica. Ibis 53:189–208. Close ). At times, these encounters lead to injury (1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); in once case, a bird became blinded in both eyes (128 Greaves, R. H. (1936). Notes on Egyptian Hoopoes and their nests. Oologists' Record 16:37–40. Close ).

Mating System and Operational Sex Ratio

The Eurasian Hoopoe is a solitary (i.e., non-colonial) and territorial breeder that is usually monogamous. In a study at Valais, Switzerland, polygamy/polyandry was noted twice: one male had a nest with seven chicks that were 15–20 d of age and another nest (with a different female) that had 4 eggs in it, and one female had a nest with eggs while also feeding young in a second nest 4 km away (132 Schaad, M. (2002). Influence of weather conditions on chick provisioning activity in the Hoopoe (Upupa e. epops). Ph.D. thesis, University of Bern, Bern, Germany. Close ). In another study from Valais, one additional instance of polygyny was noted in which a male was the social and biological father of two broods of two females (157 Berthier, K., F. Leippert, L. Fumagalli, and R. Arlettaz (2012). Massive nest-box supplementation boosts fecundity, survival and even immigration without altering mating and reproductive behaviour in a rapidly recovered bird population. PLoS ONE 7(4):e36028. Close ). Additionally, after the first brood is fledged, males often continue to feed the fledglings until they are independent, while females may pair with a different male to start a second brood, or they may raise a second brood with the same male; similarly, after the young are independent, males may choose to start a second brood with a different mate or with the same mate (85 Bötsch, Y., R. Arlettaz, and M. Schaub (2012). Breeding dispersal of Eurasian Hoopoes (Upupa epops) within and between years in relation to reproductive success, sex, and age. Auk 129(2):283−295. Close ). Pair bonds do not appear to be maintained in consecutive years (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close , 1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ).

The operational sex ratio is likely 1:1 as the sex ratio of fledglings is even and the apparent survival probabilities are very similar in males and females (158 Schaub, M., T. S. Reichlin, F. Abadi, M. Kéry, L. Jenni, and R. Arlettaz (2012). The demographic drivers of local population dynamics in two rare migratory birds. Oecologia 168:97–108. Close ).

Extra-Pair Mating Behavior/Paternity

In southeastern Spain, DNA-fingerprinting revealed that 10% of broods contained offspring (7.7% of chicks) sired by extra-pair males, and >25% of broods were visited by such males (159 Martín-Vivaldi, M., J. G. Martínez, J. J. Palomino, and M. Soler (2002). Extrapair paternity in the Hoopoe Upupa epops: an exploration of the influence of interactions between breeding pairs, non-pair males and strophe length. Ibis 144(2):236–247. Close ). In Switzerland, a conservative estimate of 4.7% of offspring appeared to be sired by extra-pair males, although the potential frequency may have been as high as 26% (157 Berthier, K., F. Leippert, L. Fumagalli, and R. Arlettaz (2012). Massive nest-box supplementation boosts fecundity, survival and even immigration without altering mating and reproductive behaviour in a rapidly recovered bird population. PLoS ONE 7(4):e36028. Close ).

Courtship, Copulation, and Pair Bond

In South Africa, where the Eurasian Hoopoe is not migratory, with the first sign of a pair bond being the male bringing tidbits of food to his mate, which begins during June; territories are formed after the pair bond is made (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ). In most of Europe, the Eurasian Hoopoe is migratory, with males arriving at the breeding grounds before females (126 Münch, H. (1952). Der Wiedehopf. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Geest & Portig K.G., Leipzig, Germany. Close , 130 Hirschfeld, H., and K. Hirschfeld (1973). Zur Brut- und Ernährungsbiologie des Wiedehopfes, Upupa epops L., unter Berücksichtigung seiner Verhaltensweisen. Beiträge zur Vogelkunde 19(2–3):81–152. Close , 5 Glutz von Blotzheim, U. N., and K. M. Bauer (1980). Handbuch der Vögel Mitteleuropas. Band 9 Columbiformes-Piciformes. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Wiesbaden, Germany. Close ). Males first establish their territories, and when females arrive, they are often chased by males, sometimes with 4–5 males in pursuit (126 Münch, H. (1952). Der Wiedehopf. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Geest & Portig K.G., Leipzig, Germany. Close ). A female chooses her mate by accepting his courtship feeding (1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). The pair bond is then maintained by frequent courtship feeding, with the male sometimes bringing the food directly to the female, or by attracting her to him by singing with food in bill (1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ).

Apparently, the full copulation ritual has not been fully described for the Eurasian Hoopoe in the wild. In a captive pair, the following mating ceremony has been described: the male, with food in his bill, approached the female from behind while giving short caw calls. The female initially turned away, causing the male to circle her while trying to stay to her rear. This approach and rejection was repeated several times before the female reached for the food held by the male. The male, however, withdrew the food, in what is called a "mock-feed." The mock-feeding was repeated many times, up to 50 or 100, before the female then solicited copulation, with body bowed down and tail raised high. The male then mounted the female, sometimes using his wings for balance, with cloacal contact lasting up to 5 s. There was no post-copulation display (121 Löhrl, H. (1977). Zum Brutverhalten des Wiedehopfes Upupa epops. Die Vogelwelt 98(2):41–58. Close ). This description matches portions of the mating ceremony that have been witnessed in wild birds (5 Glutz von Blotzheim, U. N., and K. M. Bauer (1980). Handbuch der Vögel Mitteleuropas. Band 9 Columbiformes-Piciformes. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Wiesbaden, Germany. Close , 1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ).

Brood Parasitism of Conspecifics

In one study from Valais, Switzerland, genetic analysis suggested a conspecific brood parasitism rate of 7% (n = 254 juvenile; 157 Berthier, K., F. Leippert, L. Fumagalli, and R. Arlettaz (2012). Massive nest-box supplementation boosts fecundity, survival and even immigration without altering mating and reproductive behaviour in a rapidly recovered bird population. PLoS ONE 7(4):e36028. Close ).

Degree of Sociality

During the breeding season, the Eurasian Hoopoe is usually found alone, but during the nonbreeding season, it is sometimes in small groups (1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close , 6 Maclean, G. L. (1985). Roberts' Birds of Southern Africa. Fifth edition. Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town, South Africa. Close ). It usually migrates alone or in small groups, but migrating flocks of >100 birds are sometimes encountered (117 Horváth, L. (1959). The results of the Zoological collecting trip to Egypt in 1957, of the Natural History Museum, Budapest. 7. The ornithological results. Annales Historico-Naturales Musei Nationalis Hungarici 51:451–481. Close , 1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close , 118 Bundy, G. (2009). Unusually large assembly of Hoopoes. British Birds 102(11):635–636. Close ). Stefanescu (131 Stefanescu, C. (1997). Hoopoes Upupa epops preying on pine processionary moth Thaumetopoea pityocampa pupae, with a note on kleptoparasitism by Woodchat Shrikes Lanius senator. Butlletí del Grup Catalá d'Anellament 14:51–54. Close ) noted multiple individuals foraging together in an area where there were many pine processionary moth pupa.

Play

Not described for this species.

Nonpredatory Interspecific Interactions

Attempted kleptoparasitism of a Eurasian Hoopoe by a Woodchat Shrike (Lanius senator) has been reported from Israel (160 Harris, A. (1994). Woodchat Shrike pursuing Hoopoe. British Birds 87(1):42. Close ) and Spain (131 Stefanescu, C. (1997). Hoopoes Upupa epops preying on pine processionary moth Thaumetopoea pityocampa pupae, with a note on kleptoparasitism by Woodchat Shrikes Lanius senator. Butlletí del Grup Catalá d'Anellament 14:51–54. Close ), and repeated kleptoparasitism by the Fork-tailed Drongo (Dicrurus adsimilis) has been noted in South Africa (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ).

Kinds of Predators

The Eurasian Hoopoe is apparently commonly preyed upon by the Eleonora's Falcon (Falco eleonorae) and Sooty Falcon (Falco concolor) in Oman (154 Fry, C. H., H. Eriksen, and J. Eriksen (1993). The Hoopoe’s spreadeagle posture: predator reaction or sunning? British Birds 86(3):121–124. Close ), though a Spanish study found that the Eurasian Hoopoe was generally avoided by avian predators, with only 3 attacks on Eurasian Hoopoe models compared to 19 attacks on European Roller (Coracias garrulus) models; attacks upon the Eurasian Hoopoe models came from the Black Kite (Milvus migrans), Red Kite (Milvus milvus), and Eurasian Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) (161 Ruiz-Rodríguez, M., J. M. Avilés, J. J. Cuervo, D. Parejo, F. Ruano, C. Zamora-Muñoz, F. Sergio, L. López-Jiménez, A. Tanferna, and M. Martín-Vivaldi (2013). Does avian conspicuous colouration increase or reduce predation risk?. Oecologia 173:83–93. Close ). Additionally, among 1,699 prey items collected from 214 Black Kite nests in Spain, two were Eurasian Hoopoe (161 Ruiz-Rodríguez, M., J. M. Avilés, J. J. Cuervo, D. Parejo, F. Ruano, C. Zamora-Muñoz, F. Sergio, L. López-Jiménez, A. Tanferna, and M. Martín-Vivaldi (2013). Does avian conspicuous colouration increase or reduce predation risk?. Oecologia 173:83–93. Close ). A healthy adult Eurasian Hoopoe was witnessed falling prey to a Gray Heron (Ardea cinerea) (162 Greaves, C. (1991). Grey Heron catching, killing and swallowing Hoopoe. British Birds 84(1):57–58. Close ).

In South Africa, the yellow cobra (Naja nivea) is known to predate nests, sometimes killing the female parent in the process (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ). In central Italy, four Eurasian Hoopoe nest holes ≤1m off the ground were monitored by motion-activated cameras, and 17 predation attempts were recorded; there were six attempts on nests with eggs (one each each by a red fox [Vulpes vulpes] and a domestic cat [Felis catus], plus four by black rats [Rattus rattus]), plus 11 attempts on nests with chicks, including 5 by western whipsnakes (Hierophis viridiflavus), and one each by European asp (Vipera aspis francisciredi), Eurasian Magpie (Pica pica), Little Owl (Athene noctua), red fox, domestic cat, and black rat (163 Annessi, M., and A. Montemaggiori (2023). Predation attempts on Hoopoe Upupa epops nests in a rural Mediterranean area of central Italy. Rivista Italiana di Ornitologia 93:23–24. Close ).

Response to Predators

When attacked, the Eurasian Hoopoe is known to eject copious amounts of liquid feces towards a predator (1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Additionally, during the breeding season, females and chicks produce a foul-smelling preening fluid that is similar to the preening fluid produced by the Green Woodhoopoe (Phoeniculus purpureus), and in the Green Woodhoopoe, this preening fluid has been demonstrated to reduce mammalian and reptilian egg predation (147 Burger, B. V., B. Reiter, O. Borzyk, and M. A. Du Plessis (2004). Avian exocrine secretions. I. Chemical characterization of the volatile fraction of the uropygial secretion of the green woodhoopoe, Phoeniculus purpureus. Journal of Chemical Ecology 30:1603–1611. Close , 148 Soler, J. J., M. Martín-Vivaldi, M. Ruiz-Rodríguez, E. Valdivia, A. M. Martín-Platero, M. Martínez-Bueno, J. M. Peralta-Sánchez, and M. Méndez (2008). Symbiotic association between hoopoes and antibiotic-producing bacteria that live in their uropygial gland. Functional Ecology 22:864–871. Close , 146 Martín-Vivaldi, M., A. Pena, J. M. Peralta-Sánchez, L. Sánchez, S. Ananou, M. Ruiz-Rodríguez, and J. J. Soler (2010). Antimicrobial chemicals in hoopoe preen secretions are produced by symbiotic bacteria. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 277:123–130. Close ).

Chicks in South African nests responded to potential predators in one of two ways, independent of age: 1) the chicks press their breasts against the back wall of the nest cavity and, with tails fanned over their backs, discharge foul-smelling excreta at human intruder, or 2) attack with sharp lunges and pecks; in both cases they make a "huffing" noise (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ). When a cow approached a nest with chicks, an adult male in South Africa fluttered wildly about the cow's face until it retreated (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ), however in Italy, females did not respond to attempted nest predation if they were not in the nest (163 Annessi, M., and A. Montemaggiori (2023). Predation attempts on Hoopoe Upupa epops nests in a rural Mediterranean area of central Italy. Rivista Italiana di Ornitologia 93:23–24. Close ). If in the nest, females would sometimes make a huffing noise, "like a puff-adder" when disturbed, a call which apparently is intended to intimidate (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ). Once fledged, young birds will freeze when hearing a parental alarm call (21 Skead, C. J. (1950). A study of the African Hoopoe. Ibis 92:434–463. Close ). When attacked by an avian predator, such as a falcon, adults may try to gain elevation to rise above the attacker (164 Bannerman, D. A. (1955). The Birds of the British Isles, Volume 4. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh, United Kingdom. Close ) or dive for cover (5 Glutz von Blotzheim, U. N., and K. M. Bauer (1980). Handbuch der Vögel Mitteleuropas. Band 9 Columbiformes-Piciformes. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Wiesbaden, Germany. Close ). Adults will sometimes freeze when threatened, holding still for 12 min in one reported interaction (165 Vinicombe, K.E. (1975). “Freezing” attitudes of Hoopoes when approached by man. British Birds 68:208. Close , 1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ).

The spread-eagle position sometimes adopted by adults is a sunning behavior (154 Fry, C. H., H. Eriksen, and J. Eriksen (1993). The Hoopoe’s spreadeagle posture: predator reaction or sunning? British Birds 86(3):121–124. Close ; see Self-Maintenance) and not response to a nearby predator, as has been previously suggested (e.g., 1 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close , 2 Fry, C. H., S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors (1988). The Birds of Africa. Volume 3. Parrots to Woodpeckers. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ).